(1)
Ahimsa Maharvrata :
Ahemsa, i.e., avoidance of Himsa, has
been treated as the first of the five Mahavratas. I.e., great vows, predcribed
by Jain religion and this Ahimsa Mahavrata has been defined in
‘Ratnakaranda-sravakachara in following terms:-
¯ÖÓ“ÖÖÖÖÓ ¯ÖÖ¯ÖÖÖÖÓ˸ü
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éúŸÖúÖ׸üŸÖÖÖã´ÖÖê¤îüßµÖÖÖßÖã
´ÖÆüÖ¾ÖΟÖÓ ´ÖÆüŸÖÖ´ÖË
that is, “ abstaining from the
commission of five sins, himsa and the rest in their three forms, Krita, Karita
and anumodana, with the mind, speech and the body constitutes the Maha-vrata of
great ascetics”.
It means that the Ahimsa Mahavrata
involves the avoidance of Himsa, i.e., injury to sentient beings in every
possible manner. The Himsa can be committed by three kinds of Yoga, i.e., modes
of means viz., of mind, speech and body. In other words, injurious activity can
be committed
a)
mentally, i.e., by
mind , in thought,
b)
orally; i.e., by
speech, and
c)
Physically, i.e., by
body, by Acton.
In addition to these three Yoga’s, Himsa can be committed
by three kinds of Karana, or, action, viz..
a)
Krita, i.e,. by
doing it oneself,
b)
Karita, I,e., by
getting it done through others, and
c)
Anumata of
anumodana, i.e., by giving consent to others doing it.
Further,
by the combination of these Yogas and Karanas it is clear that Himsa can be
committed in 9 ways. i.e., by the application of 3 Karanas to each of the 3
Yogas. Thus, the Ahimsa can be observed in full in the following 9 ways:
1.
Mentally not to do
injury oneself.
2.
Mentally not to get
injury done by others,
3.
Mentally not to
approve injury done by others.
4.
Orally not to do
injury oneself,
5.
Orally not to get
injury done by others.
6.
Orally not to
approve injury done by others.
7.
Physically not to do
injury oneself.
8.
Physically not to
get injury done by others, and
9.
Physically not to
approve injury done by others.
Full manner, i.e., in the above nine ways. Since
this Ahimsa Mahavrata is extremely difficult to practise it is prescribed for the
observance by the persons in the ascetic order.
(2)
Ahimsa-Anuvrata :
Taking into account the extreme severity involved in the
observance of Ahimsa Mahavrata, the Jaina scriptures have prescribed the vow of
Ahimsa with less degree of intensity for the observance by the householders and
called it as Ahimsa Anuvrata. The authoritative sacred book ‘
Ratnakaranda-stravakachara’ has defined Ahimsa Anuvrata in following terms.
ÃÖÓú»¯ÖÖŸÖË
éúŸÖúÖ׸üŸÖ´ÖÖÖÖ´ÖË µÖÖêÖ¡ÖµÖÃµÖ “Ö¸üÃÖ¢¾ÖÖÖË x
Ö ×ÆüÖÛÃŸÖ µÖ¢Ö¤üÖÆãü:
Ã£Öæ»Ö²Ö¬ÖÖŸÖË ×¾Ö¸ü´ÖÖÓ ×Ö¯ÖãÖÖ: xx 3/53
That is, “ Refraining from injuring living beings, having
two or more senses, with a deliberate act of the mind, speech or body, in any
of the three ways, Krita, Karita and mananat, is called Ahimsa Anu-vrata by the
wise.”
Thus, in Ahimsa Anuvrata, a layman does not intentionally
injure ant form of life above the class of one-sensed beings (vegetables and
the like), by an act of the mind, speech or body by Krita, i.e., by himself, by
Karita, i.e., by inciting others to commit such an act, nor by mananat or
anumodana i.e., by approving of it subsequent to its commission by others.
(3)
Meditations for
Ahimsa-vrata :
With a view to strengthening the feelings of a person in
relation to the observance of the Ahimsa-vrata, it has been laid down in “
Tattvartha-Sutra” that a person try to practise the following five Bhavanas,
i.e., Meditations:
1.
Vag-gupti, i.e.,
preservation of speech.
2.
Mano- gupti, i.e.,
preservation of mind,
3.
Irya, i.e., care in
walking,
4.
Adana-nikshepana-samiti,
i.e., care in lifting and laying down things and
5.
Alokitapana-bhojana,
i.e., care in taking meals by thoroughly seeing to one’s food and dirnk.
Obviously these Bhavanas or meditations encourage
cautiousness in the actual observance of Ahimsa-vrata.
(4)
Transgressions of
Ahimsa-vrata:
In addition to inculcating the above
Bhavanas of meditations, a person is also advised to avoid the following five
aticharas, i.e., defects or partial transgressions of Ahimsa-vrata.
1.
Bandha, i.e., Keeping
in captivity (angrily or carelessly animals or human beings),
2.
Vadha, i.e.,
beating (angrily or carelessly animals or human beings)
3.
Chheda, i.e.,
mutilating (angrily or carelessly animals or human beings),
4.
Ati-bhararopana,
i.e., overloading(angrily or carelessly animals or human beings), and
5.
Annapana-nirodha,
I,e., with-holding food or drink (from animals and human beings angrily and
carelessly).
Naturally the avoidance of these five
aticharas, I,e., transgressions, would enable a person to practise ahimsa-varata
without committing many faults.
(5)
Renunciation of
Drinking Liquor :
For the
observance of Ahimsa-Vrata it has been specifically laid down that a person
should renounce drinking wine because, according to the sacred text of
Purushartha siddhi-upaya.:
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´ÖÖׯüŸÖד֢ÖßÖã ×¾Öôָü×ŸÖ ¬Ö´ÖÔ´ÖËx
×¾ÖôÖéŸÖ¬Ö´ÖÖÔ •Öß¾ÖÖê
ØÆüÃÖÖ´Ö×¾Ö¿ÖÓú´ÖÖ“Ö¸ü×ŸÖ xx 62
That is, “ wine
stupefies the mind, one whose mind is stupefied forgets piety; and the person
who forgets piety commits Himsa without hesitation.” Again, it is impressed
that drinking liquor leads to the commitment of Himsa because wing is the
repository of many lives, which are generated in it. Similarly, it is brought
home that many base passions like pride, fear, disgust, ridicule, grief, ennui,
sex-passion, and anger arise due to drinking liquor and that these passions are
nothing but the different aspects of Himsa.
(6)
Rejection of Eating
Animal Food :
The observance of Ahimsa-vrata invariably
means the total rejection of the practice of meat- eating on various grounds.
In the first place, flesh cannot be procured without causing destruction of
life, which is nothing but clear Himsa. Secondly, even if the flesh is procured
from an animal which has met with a natural death, still Himsa is caused by due
to the crushing of tiny creatures spontaneously born in that flesh. Thirdly,
the pieces of flesh which are raw, or cooked, or are in the process of being
cooked, are found constantly generating spontaneously- born creatures of the same
genus. Hence, for these valid reasons a person must completely renounce meat
eating which definitely involves Himsa.
(7)
Abandonment of use
of Honey :
Along with the renunciation of wine drinking and meat
eating, the giving up of use of honey is also included in the observance of
Ahimsa-vrata because the use of honey in the world represents the death of
bees. It is also made clear that even if a person uses honey which has been
obtained by some trick from honeycomb, or which has itself dropped down from
it, there is Himsa in that case also, because there is destruction to the lives
spontaneously born therein.
(8)
Giving up eating of
certain fruits :
As a part of the observance of
Ahimsa-vrata it is enjoined that a person should give up the use for dietetic
and other purposes of five kinds of fruits known as Umara, Kathumara, Pakara,
Bada and Pipala as they are the breeding grounds of various living organisms.
Again, if these five fruits were dry and free from mobile beings on account of
passage of time, their use will cause Himsa because of the existence of an
excessive desire for them.
(9)
Avoidance of
killing Animals :
It is also specifically stressed that in the observance of
the Ahimsa-vrata, killing of animals under various pretexts should be strictly
avoided as it does involve destruction of living beings in one way or another.
In the first place, a person should not sacrifice animals or birds or embodied
beings with a view to please Gods by such offerings and to seek in return his
desired objectives. It is emphatically stated that it is a perverse notion to
think of himsa as having religious sanction and to consider that the Gods are
pleased at sacrifices of living beings offered in their name. In fact it is
asserted that religion is peace giving and can never encourage or sanction what
gives pain to living beings.
Secondly, a person should not kill animals for pleasing the
guests in the belief that there is no harm in killing goats, etc., for the sake
of persons deserving respect. Such a desire is obviously not good as it
involves the abominable Himsa in the form of wanton destruction of living
beings.
Thirdly, a person should not kill animals like snakes,
scorpions, lions, tigers etc., on the ground that by so doing a large number of
lives will be saved. Such a type of killing has to be avoided because it
engenders the feelings of enmity, hostility and revenge, which go against the
principle of Ahimsa. Again, it is stated that as these animals always strike
man in self-defence, they will not do harm to man of they are not attacked by
man.
Fourthly, a person should not kill animals which are
leading a severely painful life due to onslaught of certain incurable
sufferings or disease on the ground that by the act of killing these animal
would soon be relieved from its
unbearable anguish and agony. But this kind of killing is considered not as an
act of mercy but definitely as an act of Himsa.
(10)
Renouncement of
Night-eating :
With a view to making the observance of Ahimsa-vrata more
complete a strict injection to restrict the eating activity during the daytime
only is levied. It has been laid down in the sacred Jaina text of
“Purusharthasiddhi-upaya” that
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ØÆüÃÖÖ×¾Ö¸üŸÖîßÖôÖÖŸÖË ŸµÖŒŸÖ¾µÖÖ
¸üÖסֳÖãÛŒŸÖ¸ü×¯Ö 129
That is, “ those who take their meals at night cannot avoid
Himsa. Hence, abstainers from Himsa should give up nighteating also”.
It is argued that day-time is the natural time for work and
for taking food. Again, food is prepared more easily, with greater care and
with less probability of injury to living beings during day than at night.
Further, the light of the sun makes it easy to pick out, to separate
unwholesome stuff, and to remove the worms and small insects, which find place
in the material for food. There are many insects which are not even visible in
the strongest artificial light at night and there are also many small insects,
which have a strong affinity for food stuffs, appear only during night-time.
that is why it is concluded in the same sacred text as follows
Øú ¾ÖÖ ²ÖÆãü¯ÖÏ»Öׯ֟Öî׸üןÖ
×ÃÖ¬¤Óü µÖÖê ´ÖÖÖê¾Ö“ÖÖúÖµÖî : x
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ÃÖŸÖŸÖ´ÖØÆüÃÖÖÓ ÃÖ ¯ÖÖ»ÖµÖ×ŸÖ x x 134
that is, “ why discuss further? It is established that he
who has renounced night-eating, through mind, speech or body, always observes
Ahimsa . As utmost importance is attached to the practice of eating during
day-time from the point of view of observance of Ahimsa, certain sacred texts
like “ Charitra-sara” consider “Ratri-bhukti-tyaga”, i.e., giving up eating at
night, as the sixth “ Anuvrata”, i.e., small vow, added to the prevalent set of
five Anuvratas.
9
SUPPLEMENTS TO AHIMSA-VRATA
Along with various restrictions laid down as necessary
elements in the observance of the vow of Ahimsa, certain specific virtues,
reflections and controls or sufferings are also prescribed by sacred Jaina
texts as supplements to the practice of Ahimsa-vrata. These supplements are.
1)
Ten kinds of
Dharma,
2)
Twelve kinds of
Anupreksha, and
3)
Twenty-two kinds of
Parishaha-jaya,
And these are considered specifically
useful in achieving Samvara, i.e., stoppage of influx of Karmic matter into the
soul, which is a necessary condition to the attainment of Moksha or salvation.
These supplements constitute a part of the rules of conduct prescribed for the
saints. But it has been particularly mentioned that these should be followed by
householders also to the best of their capacity.
(1)
Dasalakshana Dharma
:
The ten noble virtues, known as ‘Dasalakshana Dharma’, are
expected to be assiduously cultivated and put into actual practice during their
normal life by the followers of Jainism. Since the emphasis has been laid on
the translation of the virtues into practice, these ten virtues are known as
ten observances also. The ten noble virtues are:
1.
Uttama-Kshama,
i.e., Supreme Forgiveness of Forbearance,
2.
Uttama-Mardava,
i.e., Supreme humility or tenderness,
3.
Uttama-Arjava,
i.e., supreme honesty or straight forwardness,
4.
Uttama-Saucha,
i.e., Supreme contentment or purity of thought and freedom from greed,
5.
Uttama-Satya, i.e.
supreme truth,
6.
Uttama-Samyama,
i.e., Supreme self-control or self-restraint,
7.
Uttama-Tapa, i.e.,
Supreme austerities,
8.
Uttama-tyaga ,
i.e., Supreme renunciation,
9.
Uttama-Akinchama,
i.e., Supreme non-attachment or not taking the non-self for one’s own self, and
10.
Uttama-Brahmacharya,
i.e., Supreme chastity.
(2)
Anuprekshas :
In addition to ten noble virtues, every pious person is
expected to contemplate on the following twelve ‘Anuprekshas i.e., the ideas
which must be kept at the focus of thoughts constantly.
1 Anitya Anupreksha, i.e., impermanence or in other words
everything is subject to change or is transitory,
2. Asarana anupreksha, meaning without refuge or
unprotectiveness or helplessness. The feelings that soul is unprotected from
fruition of Karma’s, for example, death, etc.
3. Samsara anupreksha, i.e., mundaneness or cycle of births
and deaths. Soul moves in the cycle of existences and cannot attain true
happiness till it is cut off.
4. Ekatva anupreksha, i.e., loneliness. I am alone, the doer
of my actions and the enjoyer of the fruits of them.
5.Anyatva anupreksha, i.e., separateness of difference in
nature. The world, my relations and friends, my body and mind, they are
all-distinct and separate from my real self.
6.
Asuchi anupreksha,
i.e., impurity. The body is impure and dirty.
7. Asrava anupreksha, i.e., inflow. The inflow of Karmas is
the cause of my mundane existence and
is the product of passions.
8. Samvara anupreksha, i.e., stoppage. The
inflow of Karma must be stopped.
9. Nirijara anupreksha, i.e., shedding. The
old karmic matter must be shed from or shaken out of the soul.
10. Loka anupreksha, i.e., the world or the
universe. The nature of the universe and its constituent elements in all their
vast variety proving the insignificance and miserable nothingness of man in
time and space.
11. Bodhi-durlabha rnupreksha, i.e.,
variety of religious knowledge. It is difficult to attain right belief, right
knowledge and right conduct.
12. Dharma anupreksh, i.e., reflection on
the nature of religious path as preached by the conquerors, namely the true
nature of the three-fold path of liberation.
These twelve Anuprekshas are meditations or
reflections and have to be meditated upon again and again. Sometimes these
Anuprekshas are termed as Bhavanas also.
(3)
Parishaha-Jaya :
Along
with the inculcation of the noble virtues and meditation of twelve reflections,
every pious person must attempt at Parishaha-Jaya, i.e., the coquering of
various types of Parishahas i.e., sufferings or inconveniences and pains. The
parishahas are the hardships or sufferings which have to be undergone by a
conscientious person for the sake of non-falling off from the path of Moksha,
i.e., liberation, and for the shedding of Karmic matter from the soul. Hence
Parishaha-Jaya means victory over the consciousness of pain or suffering. Such
sufferings are of following 22 kinds:
1.
Kshut, i.e.,
Hunger,
2.
Pipasa, i.e,
Thirst,
3.
Sita, i.e., Cold.
4.
Ushna, i.e., Heat,
5.
Damsamasaka, i.e.,
Insect-bite,
6.
Nagnya, i.e,
Nakedness,
7.
Arati, i.e., Ennui
or disagreeable surroundings,
8.
Stri, i.e.,
Sex-passion,
9.
Charya, i.e.,
Walking too much,
10.
Nishadya, i.e., Continuous sittings in one
posture,
11.
Sayya, i.e., Resting on hard earth.
12.
Akrosa, i.e., Abuse or unpleasant and
insulting language,
13.
Vadha, i.e., Beating or violence inflicted by
cruel persons,
14.
Yachana, i.e.,
Begging or desire to beg for food, medicine, etc.,
15.
Alabha, i.e., Disappointment from not getting
what one wants, e,g. food,
16.
Roga, i.e., Diseases and infirmities in the
body,
17.
Tmasparsa, i.e.,
Thorn- pricks or pricks from the sharp grass,
18.
Mala, i.e., Dirt and impurity all over the
body,
19.
Satkara-purashara, i.e., Remaining
uninfluenced by praise or reward,
20.
Prajna, i.e., Pride of knowledge,
21.
Ajnana, i.e., feeling of ignorance or
non-possession of knowledge, and
22.
Adarsana, i.e., slack-belief or temporary
lack of faith.
For exmaple, on failure to attain supernatural powers even
after great piety and austerities, to begin to doubt the faith of Jainism and
its teachings.
It is laid down that these 22 sufferings should be ever
endured without any feeling of vexation, by one who desires to get rid of all
causes for pain.
Apart from these three types of supplements to Ahimsa-vrata
which are considered useful in achieving Samvara, i.e., stoppage of influx of
Karmic matter into the soul, there is one more important supplement to
Ahimsa-vrata known as the “Practice of Tapa”, i.e., observance of austerities.
These austerities are regarded as essential things for achieving Jirjara, i.e.,
the schedding of Karmic matter from the soul, which is a necessary condition to
the attainment of Moksha, i.e.,
salvation. The Jaina scriptures distinguish twelve kinds os austerities,
as the expedients of Nirjara, grouped together under the two headings of Bahya
Tapa, i.e., external austerities, and Abhyanatara Tapa, i.e., internal
austerities.
(i)
Bahya Tapa :
The six external austerities are:
1.
Anasana, i.e.,
periodical fasting,
2.
Avamodarya, i.e.,
eating less than the capacity of the stomach,
3.Vrtti-parisankhyana, i.e., putting restrictions in regard
to food, for example, to accept food only if a certain condition is fulfilled,
4. Rasa-parityaga, i.e., daily renunciation of one or more
of six kinds of delicacies, viz, ghee, milk, curds, sugar, salt and oil,
5. Vivika-sayyasana, i.e., sitting or sleeping in a lonely
or isolated place, devoid of animate beings, and
7.
Kayaklesa, i.e.,
mortification of the body so long as the mind is not disturbed.
(ii)
Abhyantara Tapa :
The six internal austerities are
1.
Prayaschitta, i.e.,
expiation,
2. Vinaya, i.e., reverence,
3. Vaiyavrtya, i.e., service of the saints
or worthy people,
4. Svadhyaya, i.e., study.
5. Vyutsarga, i.e., giving up attachment to
the body, etc., and
6.
Dhyana, i.e.,
concentration of mind.
All these external and internal kinds of austerities are
practised with the object of burning or shedding out all karmic impurities from
the soul. These austerities are meant mainly for the ascetics, but it has also
been injoined upon the householders to practise them to the best of their
abilities.
10
IMPLEMENTATION OF AHIMSA-VRATA
The Ahimsa-vrata, i.e., the vow of Ahimsa, has not only been
elaborated in theory in Jaina scriptures, as outlined above, but it has also
been implemented in practice to a very large extent by the followers of Jainism
– both ascetics and householders. It has been enjoined upon the ascetics to
observe the Ahimsa-vrata as a Mahavrata, I, e., a great vow, and this religious
injunction has been very meticulously observed from ancient times to the
present day by the Jaina Sadhus and Sadhvis, i.e., monks and nuns. However, the
Jaina scriptures, from the practical point of view, allowed the Sravakas and
the Sravikas, i.e., the male and female sections of the laity, viz., the
householders, to observe the Ahimsa-vrata as an Anuvrata, i.e., a small vow. As
such , the householders were required to observe the Ahimsa-vrata with
comparatively less severity but at the same time without transgressing the
basic tenets of Ahimsa. Naturally this fundamental requirement made it
necessary for the householders to put a number of restrictions on their
economic, social, cultural and other activities connected with their livlihood
and maintenance. This kind of specific implementation of Ahimsa-vrata can be
very clearly noticed from the practical restrictions and conventions actually
followed by the Jaina householders in their activities like occupations and
professions, food and drink, and dress and decoration.
(1)
Occupations and
Professions.
From the present state of Jainas it appears that a
predominantly large majority of them is
engaged in some kind of business. They are known as Baniyas or Vaniyas and are
included under the Vaisyas. The predominance of Vaisya is, historically
speaking, a comparatively recent development because in ancient times Jainas
were found in all classes and especially among the Kshatriyas. But due to
various reasons the number of Jainas in other classes gradually dwindled and in
consequence we now notice that the followers of Jainism are mainly Vaisyas.
The rules of conduct for laymen lay down that a person
should follow some kind of business or profession in a just and honest wqay for
the maintenance of his avocation is that it must not be of an ignoble or
degrading nature in the sense that it must not be of and ignoble or degrading
nature in the sense that it should not involve wholesale destruction of life.
The prohibited businesses are those of butchers, fishermen, brewers,
wine-merchants, gun-makers and the like. The Jaina Scriptures mention fifteen
varieties of business enterprises which involve great injury to living beings
and hence the Jaina laymen are required to avoid them. They are such as those
involving great use of fire, cutting of trees or plants, castrating bullocks,
clearing of jungles by employment of fire, drying up lakes, rivers, etc.
It is generally believed that the main principle of Jainism,
namely, Ahimsa or not hurting any living being, bars the Jainas from becoming
the agriculturists or soldiers. But this is not the case. The first
Tirthankara, Lord Rshbhadeva asked the people to follow six kinds of
professions for their maintenance and both the professions of an agriculturist
and of a soldier were included in them. Apart from this, we come across
numerous reference pertaining to agriculture was not forbidden to Jainas. At
present the main occupation of the Jainas in Karnataka is that of agriculture.
In regard to them it is stated that except some of the larger landholders who
keep farm-servants the Jaina land holders, with the help of their women, do all
parts of field work with their own hands. They are considered as the hardest
working husbandmen who make use of every advantage of soil and situation. Even
in Gujaratha where the Jainas are mainly traders and industrialists, there are
some Jainas whose occupation is only agriculture. From the fact that even in
the days of Lord Rshabha, the first Tirthankara, rules were made, among other
things, regarding politics, warfare and archery show that the Jainas were not
averse to fighting as such. In the past many Jainas were in the fighting forces
of the state as can be seen from a large number of Jaina generals and warriors,
and even now some are employed in the defence forces of India, and are
occupying responsible positions.
The Jainas follow practically all sorts of avocations but
they are mainly money- lenders, bankers, jewellers, cloth-merchants, grocers
and recently industrialists. As they hold the key positions in all these
occupations, it is no wonder that a
large proportion of mercantile wealth of India passes through their hands.
Apart from occupations, Jainas have taken to professions also. They are found
mainly in legal, medical, engineering and teaching profession and nowadays many
Jainas are holding important responsible positions in various departments of
the Central and State Government.
(2)
Food and
Drink.
The Janis are very particular regarding their food and
drink. Since the ethical code of the Jainas is based on the main principle of
Ahimsa, we find its thorough application in the matters of food and drink also.
It has already been noticed that every householder is required to posses Ashta
Mulagunas or eight fundamental virtues, which are the observance of the five
anuvratas and abstinence from the use of flesh, wine and honey. The injunction
against eating flesh of any living being is quite obvious. The Jainas do not
take food, which involves the slaughter of animals, fishes, birds, or anything
that has five or less sense organs. That is why they have to abstain from
eating Kandamulas, that is, underground stems and roots like potatoes. Onions,
garlic, reddish, turnip, carrot, beet-roots etc. which are supposed to contain
a multitude of small insects. Similarly, they must not eat fruits of Gular,
Anjeer, Pipal, Pakar and Banyan which are the birth place of mobile beings.
Further, it necessary for a Jaina to take his meals during daytime because
Himsa is in enevitable when food is prepared or taken in the absence of
sunlight. Therefore the Jainas have to renounce night-eating throughout the
year and those who cannot do so all the time, at least do it during the
Chaturmasa or the four months of rainy season when there is a large growth of insect.
Again, the for food, with a view to exclude as tenderly as possible any of the
tiny living creatures which might be found in or on it. In the same way as a
Jainas have been enjoined to strain or filter water, milk, juice, or any liquid
drink before use. It must be said to the credit of the Jainas that they do
observe very scrupulously all these rules regarding food. It is the outstanding
feature of Jainsa throughout India that they are strictly vegetarians, never
eat at night, and always use strained water. It is said that when a Jaina
traveller wishes to quench his thirst at a tank or stream, he covers his mouth
with cloth, stoops down, and thus drinks by suction. This cleanly custom is
highly recommended for use everywhere.
Along with flesh, wine
and all kinds of intoxicants, or even stimulants, are prohibited. They are not
considered necessary for the life and well-being of the body. Wine is the birth
place of many beings which are generated in liquor and hence those who are
addicted to wine, necessarily commit Himsa. Further, it is stated that wine
sutpifies the mind, one whose mind is stupified forgets piety, and the person
who forgets piety commits Himsa without hesitation. Similarly, pride, fear,
disgust, ridicule, ennui, grief, sex-passion, anger etc. are all forms of Himsa
and all these are concomitants of wine. Like wine, honey is also prohibited
because it is considered that even the smallest drop of honey very often
represents the death of bees. If one uses honey which has been obtained by some
trick from honey-comb or which has itself dropped down from it, one necessarily
commits Himsa in this case also, because of the destruction of creatures of
spontaneous birth born there. In the same strain the Jainas have been advised
not to use stale butter as after a lapse of some time the butter becomes a
birth-place of small beings due to extreme fermentation.
As regards the question of food and
drink one thing must be remembered. Jainism admits that only liberated souls
are in a position to observe complete non-injury and that mundane souls have to
commit Himsa for their maintenance as life thrives only on life. Though Himsa
is unavoidable in the sustenance of life, Jainism, by rules of conduct, tries
to limit it for essential purposes only. The rules of conduct never sanction
injury, but they try to restrict it to the lowest possible minimum, by taking
into account the gradations of injured living beings. The higher the stage of
development of the injured being is, (i.e., the closer it has approached the
state of perfection), the heavier the sin of the injury committed is considered
to be. Thus, from the practical point of view, the sin of hurting a plant is
smaller than that of hurting an animal, the sin of hurting an animal is smaller
than that on hurting a human being, etc. From this standpoint, it can be
understood why Jainism forbids flesh0eating, and, on the other hand, objects
little to the eating of vegetables. Therefore, what is enjoined on Jainas is
simply this. “Do not destroy life, unless it is absolutely necessary for the
maintenance of a higher kind of life”.
(3) Dress and Decoration:
The Jainas are required to pursue the
path of Ahimsa in the matter of dress also. They have not to wear the furs and
the plumes that are obtained by torturing their owners-animals and birds. For
the same reason the use of silken and woollen garments is prohibited for all
Jainas. Here we can mark the difference between the Hindus and the Jainas. The
Hindus do not consider silk as impure and they use silken garments at the time
of worshipping or taking their meals. It is necessary for Jainas to restrict
the use of leather goods to the minimum. They have to avoid all leather
articles meant for decoration, for example, tiger-skin, deer-skin, etc., and
are required to use substitutes for leather goods wherever it is possible, for
example, belts, purses, straps for watches, etc., where the use of leather
goods is unavoidable they have to see that leather is procured from naturally
dead animals and not from slaughtered animals.
One of the rules of conduct meant for
laymen lays down that a Jaina should dress according to his means, and if he
has the means to dress extravagantly, still he should not do so. This means
that Jainas should not care much for their dress with a view to look more
beautiful. According to them the clothes should be sobre, though not sombre,
and they should not aim at displaying bodily contour, to excite the passions of
the beholder.
11
The Ahimsa-vrata, i.e., the vow of
Ahimsa, has to be implemented into actual practice, both by the ascetics and
the householders, in accordance with the detailed rules laid down for these two
major sections of the society because the Jaina scriptures have given maximum
importance to the day to day observance of rigth conduct consisting of five
main vows, three Guna-vratas, i.e., multiplicative vows, and four
Siksha-vratas, i.e., disciplinary vows, with a view to achieving salvation, the
aim of life of every individual, and have assigned the first position to the
vow of Ahimsa. The five vows form the basis on which the superstructure of
Jaina ethics has been raised. They give a definite outlook of life and create a
particular type of mental attitude. The very essence of Jaina philosophy is
transferred into action in the shape of observance of the five main vows. It is
clear that five main vows are in the form of abstentions from or avoidance of
certain bad things or faults in the following manner:
1. Ahimsa is the abstention from
injury,
2. Satya is the abstention from
falsehood,
3. Achaurya is the abstention from
theft,
4. Bramacharya is the abstention from
unchastity, and
5. Aparigraha is the abstention from
worldly attachments.
Further, three things are enjoined in
the matter of avoidance of these five faults. In the first place, a person
should not incite others to commit such personally, secondly, a person should
not even approve of it subsequent to its commission by others. Moreover, even
though these five faults are metioned separately, still it can be noticed that
the utmost significance has been attached to the avoidance of the first fault
of Himsa, i.e., injury and that the remaining four faults of falsehood, theft,
unchastity and wordly attachments are considered as mere different forms of
varieties of Himsa, i.e., injury. Obviously, the concept of Ahimsa, i.e.,
avoidance of injury becomes very wide, inclusive and comprehensive.
(i) Ahimsa and Satya
Speaking Satya, i.e., truth, is the
observance of Ahimsa because Asatya, i.e., falsehood is considered as Himsa.,
i.e., injury according to sacred Jaina texts. In the standard Jaina work
“Purusharthasiddhi-upaya”, the definition and nature of falsehood are given in
the following manner;
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that is, wherever any wrong statement is made though
PramadaYoga, i.e., careless activity of mind, speech or body, it is certainly
known as falsehood. Further, falsehood is divided into four kinds:
1. The first kind of falsehood is
making a statement by which the existence of a thing with reference to its
position, time, and nature is denied, e. g., to say “ a particular person is
not here” (when he is present).
2. The second kind of falsehood is
making a statement to the effect that a particular thing exists, where that
thing does not exist with reference to the position, time, and nature of other
objects, e.g., to say “a pitcher is here” (when it is not actually there).
3. The third kind of falsehood is that
where an existing thing is represented as something different from what it
really is, e.g., when a horse is said to be a cow.
4. The fourth kind of falsehood
consists of three types of speaking viz.,
(a) Garhita, i.e., condemnable,
(b) Savadya, i.e., sinful, and
(c) Apriya, i.e., disagreeable.
The Garhita (i.e. condemnable) speech
is said to be all that which is back-biting, unbecoming, ridiculous speech with
the use of harsh language and violent words. Besides, useless gossiping and
using language which incites unfounded beliefs and superstitions comes under
this category of condemnable speech. The Savadya (i.e. sinful) speech comprises
all speech that leads to destruction of life by piercing, beating, cutting,
stealing, etc. The Apriya (i.e. disagreeable) speech is that which in the minds
of other persons, creates feelings of uneasiness, fear, pain, hostility, grief,
etc.
Thus, the Pramata-yoga, i.e., the
vibrations due to the passions which agitate mind, speech or body, is
invariably present in all these four kinds of falsehood. Hence, Himsa is
certainly involved in falsehood because Pramatta-yoga is the cause of Himsa.
(ii) Ahimsa and Achaurya :
Like Satya, Achaurya, i.e., not
committing theft, is also Ahimsa, i.e., non-injury, because every theft
includes Himsa just as every kind of falsehood includes Himsa. According to the
Jaina scriptures, “the taking, by Pramatta-yoga, of things without they being
given by the owner, is to be deemed as theft and that is invariably Himsa
because it is the cause of injury.” It is obvious that the person who thinks of
stealing, injures the purity of his own soul, suffers pain of punishment if
detected and causes pain to the others whom he deprives them of their thing.
Again, in this world all transient things (or forms of property) constitute the
external Pranas, i.e., vitalities of a man. Hence, depriving a person of his
property is tantamount to depriving that person of his Pranas and this is
nothing but Himsa.
Thus all theft insludes Himsa. In fact
there is no exclusivity between Himsa and theft and it can very well be
maintained that Himsa is certainly included in theft, because in taking what
belongs to others, there is the presence of Pramatta yoga, which is the cause
of Himsa.
(ii) Ahimsa and Brahmacharya :
In the same strain as Satya and
Achaurya, the Brachmacharya is also considered as Ahimsa, because Abramha is a
kind of Himsa. The term Abramha refers to the copulation arising from sexual
passion and this act is Himsa in two ways. In the first place, many living
beings are deprived of their vitalities in the vagina in the sexual act, just
as a hot rod of iron, when it is introduced in a tube filled with sesamum seeds,
burns them up. Secondly, psychical life is affected because of the emergence of
sexual passion, and so also the material Pranas, i.e, vitalities, are affected
owing to the lethargic condition consequent upon copulation.
Obviously, unchastity is a form of
Himsa and as such persons are advised to give up their sex-desire altogether.
But it is possible only for the ascetics to do so. Therefore, it is enjoined
upon a householder to observe the vow of Brahmacharya to a limited extent by
total abstinence from all sexual desires with reference to females other than
his own wife.
(iv) Ahimsa and Aparigraha :
Aparigraga, i.e., abstention from
worldly attachments, is regarded as Ahimsa, because Parigraha, i.e., attachment
is a from of Himsa, i.e., injury. Broadly speaking Parigraha is of two kinds,
viz.,
(a) Abhyantara Parigraha, i.e, internal
attachment, and
(b) Bahya Parigraha, i.e, external
attachment.
The internal attachments of possessions
are recognized to be of fourteen kinds, namely, preverted belief, laughter,
indulgence, ennui, sorrow, fear, disgust, anger, pride, deceit, greed and
desire for sexual enjoyment with man, with woman and with both. The external
attachments or possessions are of two kinds with reference to the living and
the non-living objects.
Both the internal external types of
Parigraha can never preclude Himsa. Internal attachment, the desire for many
things, prejudicially affects the purity of the soul, and this injury to the
pure nature of the soul constitutes Himsa. Similarly, external attachment or
the actual possession of living and non-living objects creates attraction and
love for them, which defiles purity of the soul and therefore amounts to Himsa.
As a consequence, in the interest of the practice of the principle of Ahimsa,
persons are advised to give up both the internal and external kinds of
attachments. But it is not possible for the householders to renounce all
Parigraha completely. Hence it is enjoined upon the householders to limit the
extent of their Parigraha to a predetermined amount of wealth, cattle,
servants, buildings, etc. That is why the Anu-vrata, i.e, the small vow of
Aparigraga, i.e., non-attachment, is also termed as Parigraha-parimana
Anu-vrata, i.e., the small cow of limited attachments.
(v) Ahimsa and Sila-vratas :
Along with the observance of five main
vows, known as Anu-vratas, a householder is expected, according to Jaina
scriptures, to follow seven Sila-vratas, i.e., supplementary vows, consisting
of three guna-vratas, i.e., multiplicative vows and four Siksha-vratas, i.e.,
disciplinary vows. In the Jaina scriptures sufficient emphasis has also been
laid even on the practice of these Sila-vratas, i.e., the supplementary vows,
since these vows perform the important work of giving protection to the first
Anu-vratas just as the encircling walls guard towns. Further, as the Anu-vratas
are centred round the basic doctrine of Ahimsa, similarly Sila-vratas
consisting of Guna-vratas and Siksha-vratas, also are purposefully devised with
a view to giving necessary support to the observance of Ahimsa to the maximum
extent possible. Obviously, on the lines of Anu-vratas, the Sila-vratas also
help to make Ahimsa more comprehensive.
(vi) Ahimsa and Guna-vratas :
The Guna-vratas are multiplicative vows
since they raise the value of five main vows or Anu-vratas. The Guna-vratas
include the following three Vratas : (a) the Dig-vratas, (b) the Desa-vrata,
and (c) the Anarthadanda-vrata.
(a) The Dig-vrata involves taking a
life-long vow to limit one’s worldly activities to fixed points in all ten
directions, viz, Up, Down, North, South, East, West, North-West, South-East and
South-West. A householder has to fix the limits in these directions on the
basis of certain wellknown objects and then to carry out all his activities
within these determined limits. Obviously, as the householder’s activities are
confined within limited directions, his observance of Ahimsa Beyond these
limits becomes complete since he does not indulge in carrying out any activity
there.
(b) The Desa-vrata involves taing a
life-long vow to confine one’s wouldly activities to the prescribed smaller
specific areas within the limits of directions already fixed in accordance with
the observance of the vow of Dig-vrata.
Thus, the Desa-vrata means that a householder shall, during a certain period of
time, carry out his activities within a very limited area consisting of a
certain village, market, street, or house and shall have nothing to do with the
objects beyond this inner limit. As a consepuence, the pure-minded householder,
who thus confines the inner extent of his activities, does achieve the
observance of absolute Ahimsa for that time by renouncing all Himsa possible in
the vast space which has been given up according to this Vrata.
(c) The Anarthadanda-Vrata involves
taking a vow not to commit purposeless sins. As a part of this vow it has been
laid down in the scriptures that a householder should avoid following things.
1) Apadhyana, i.e., evil thinking,
2) Papopadesa, i.e., evil instruction,
3) Pramadacharya, i.e. careless
dealing,
4) Himsadana, i.e., gifts of
instruments of offence,
5) Duh-sruti, hearing evil and
6) Dyuta, i.e., gambling.
In elaboration of these sinful things,
the following restrictions have been placed on the behaviour of householders :
1. One should never think of hunting,
victory, defeat, battle, adultery, theft, etc., because these things only lead
to sin.
2. Sinful advice should never be given
to persons living upon art, trade, writing, agriculture, arts, and crafts,
service and industry.
3. One should not without reason dig
ground, uproot trees, trample lawns, sprinkle water, and pluck leaves, fruits
and flowers.
4. One should be careful not to give
instruments of Himsa, such as knife, poison, fire, plough, sword, bow, etc.
5. One should not listen to, accept or
teach such bad stories as increase attachments, etc., and are full of
absurdities.
6. One should renounce gambling even
from a distance because it is the first of all evils, the destroyer of
contentment, the home of deceit, and the abode of theft and falsehood.
Obviously, it has been emphasised that
he who deliberately renounces all these and other unneccessary sins, leads his
Ahimsa vow ceaselessly upto admirable victory.
(vii) Ahimsa and Siksha-vratas :
The Siksha-vratas are disciplinary vows
since they are aimed to prepare the householder for the discipline of an
ascetic life and are meant to strengthen the five main vows or Anu-vratas. The
Siksha-vratas include four Vratas, viz., (a) Samayika, (b) Proshadhopavasa, (c)
Upabhoga-paribhoga-parimana, and (d) Atithi-samvibhaga.
(a) Samayika means taking a vow to
devote particular time every day to contemplation of the self for spiritual
advancement. It teaches a person to be equanimous, that is, to be indifferent
to love or hate, pain or pleasure, loss or gain, etc. This attitude of
equanimity makes the observance of Ahimsa more complete as Samayika involves
the absence of all sinful activities.
(b) Proshadhopavasa means taking a vow
to fast on four days of the month, namely, the two 8th and the two
14th days of the lunar fortnight. Such regular fasting helps the
practice of Samayika, i.e., equanimity, Dhyana, i.e., spiritual meditation, and
Svadhaya, i.e., self-study. Obviously, such observance of fasting secures the
merit of Ahimsa in completeness for that period.
(c) Upabhoga-paribhoga-parimana means
taking a vow to limit one’s enjoyment of consumable and non-consumable things.
It involves putting restrictions on or giving up the use of vegetables, fruits,
food etc., containing infinite number of lives and limiting use of things like
clothes, furniture, etc. It also entails giving up the sins of falsehood,
sexual impurity, ect., It is also laid down that the enjoyment of things should
be limited to fixed days and nights, and within these limits further limits of
enjoyment for fixed hours should be made. In this way a graduated course of
renunciation, progressing with rising capacity and clear knowledge is prescribed.
Hence it is specifically stated in ‘Purusharthasiddhi-upaya’ that
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that is, “he who being thus contented with a few limited
enjoyments, renounces the vast majority of them, observes Ahimsa par-excellence
because of abstention from considerable Himsa.” Thus, by the practice of this
Siksha-vrata, the observance of Ahimsa becomes more and more extensive.
(d) Atithi-Samvibhaga means taking a
vow to take one’s food only after feeding proper persons like ascetics, pious
householders, etc., The food offered should be such as is helpful to studies
and to the due observance of austerities. Again, food is to be offered to the
true believers and that too without any expectation of worldly benefits. Such a
gift of food is, in fact, an act of Ahimsa, as it is an antithesis of greed
which is Himsa. Thus, giving a gift amounts to Ahimsa because it is a
concomitant of self-purification of the giver and helps in the spiritual
advancement of the donee.
12
The sacred Jaina texts have not only
propounded the comprehensive and all inclusive character of the doctrine of
Ahimsa and revealed how the basic principle of Ahimsa is present in all the
five main and seven supplementary vows prescribed for the observance of Jaina
householders, but have also stressed emphatically the dire necessity of
exercising utmost care by the Jaina householders in the actual observance of
Ahimsa in their daily life. It has been specifically laid down that the
prescribed twelve vows should be observed both in proper spirit and action. In
this connection it has been recommended to avoid the mental and behavioural
faults or defects in the observance of the Vratas, i.e., vows. These defects
are mentioned as follows :
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that is, “In the observance of vows, when there is loss of
purity of mind, it is called ‘atikrama’, i.e., contravention; when there is
craving for sensual pleasure, it is said to be ‘vyatikrama’, i.e., violation;
when there is laxity or idleness, it is known as ‘atichara’, i.e.,
transgression; and when there is, in fact, a breach or break, it is termed as
‘anachara’, i.e., immorality or improper conduct.”
In these categories of faults or defects, special prominence
has been given to the avoidance of ‘aticharas’ so as to make the observance of
Ahimsa more complete and at the same time more meaningful. The main purpose of
this injunction is to maintain the purity of the Ahimsa in all its aspects and
phases involved in the twelve vows. It is emphasised that for the maintenance
of sanctity of Ahimsa every vow should be observed with great care and zeal,
since only such vows can bear desired fruits, and serve as a means to the moral
and the spiritual upliftment. That is why extreme carefulness in the practice
of Ahimsa has been strongly advocated and with this end in view the Jaina
scriptures have particularly laid down the five kinds of ‘aticharas’, i.e.,
transgressions, of each of the twelve vows and have specifically enjoined upon
the householders to avoid these ‘aticharas’. The most authoritative Jaina
sacred text “Tattvarthadhigama-sutra” has given a list of five aticharas, i.e.,
transgressions, of each of the five main vows, i.e., Anuvratas, and seven
supplementary vows, i.e., Sila-vratas.
(1) Vow of ‘Ahimsa’ :
The partial transgressions of the first vow of Ahimsa
Anuvrata are
(i) Bandha, i.e., keeping in captivity (angrily or
carelessly animals or human beings),
(ii) Vadha, i.e., beating (angrily or carelessly animals or
human beings),
(iii) Chheda, i.e., mutilating (angrily or carelessly
animals or human being,)
(iv) Ati-bhararopana, i.e., with-holding food or drink (from
animals and human beings angirly or carelessly.)
(2) Vow of ‘Satya’ :
The partial transgressions of the second vow of Satya Anuvrata
are :
(i) Mithyopadesa, i.e., preaching false doctriness,
(ii) Rahobhyakhyana i.e., divulhing the secret (actions of
man and woman),
(iii) Kutalekhakriya, i.e., forgery (and perjury),
(iv) Nyasapahara, i.e, unconscientious dealing by means of speech
(for example, when A deposits Rs. 1000/- with B; and later on thinking that he
has deposits Rs. 900/- demands Rs. 900/-, back and on this demand when B
returns Rs. 900/- only, then the transgression of Nyasapahara takes place).
(v) Sakara-mantrabheda, i.e, divulging what one guesses by
seeing the behaviour ro gestures of others, who are consulting in private.
(3) Vow of ‘Achaurya’ :
The partial transgressions of the third vow Achaurya
Anuvrata are :
(i) Stenaprayoga, i.e, abetment of theft,
(ii) Tadahrtadana, i.e, receiving stolen property,
(iii) Viruddha-rajyatikrama, i.e, illegal traffic
(e.g.,
selling things to alien enemies or at inordinate prices in time or war),
(iv) Hinadhika-manonmana, i.e. false weight and measures, and
(v) Pratirupaka-vyavahara, i.e., aduteration.
(4) Vow of ‘Brahmacharya’ :
The partial transgressions of the fourth vow Brahmacharya
Anuvrata are :-
(i) Paravivaha-Karana i.e., bringing about the marriages of
people who are not of one’s family;
(ii)
Itvarika-aparigrahitagamana, i.e., inter-course with a married immoral woman,
(iii)
Itvarika-aparigrahitagamana, i.e., inter-course with an unmarried immoral
woman,
(iv) Ananga-Krida, i.e.,
unnatural sexual intercourse, and
(v) Kamativrabhnivesa, i.e., intense sexual
desire.
(5) Vow of ‘Aparigraha’ :
The partial transgressions of the fifth vow Aparigraha
Anuvrata are in the nature of violation of the limits improsed on the
possession between five pairs of things, namely,
(i) Kshetta-Vastu, i.e., Land and Houses,
(ii) Hiranya-Suvarna, i.e., Silver and Gold,
(iii) Dhana-Dhanya, i.e., Cattle and Corn,
(iv) Dasi-Dasa, i.e., Female and Male servants, and
(v) Kupya-Bhanda, i.e., Clothes and Utensiles.
(6) Vow of ‘Digvrata’ :
The partial transgressions of the first Silavrata, viz.,
Digvrata are
(i) Urdhva-vyatikrama, i.e., to go up higher than the limit
in the vow,
(ii) Adh-vyatikrama, i.e., to go lower than the limit in the
vow,
(iii) Tiryag-vyatikrama, i.e., to go lower the limit in the
vow,
(iv) Kshetra-vrddhi, i.e., to increase the boundaries of the
directions beyond the limit in the vow,
(v) Smri-antaradhana, i.e., forgetting the limit in the vow.
(7) Vow of ‘Desavrata’ :
The partial transgressions of the second Silvrata, viz.,
Desavrata are :
(i) Anayana, i.e., ordering for things from beyond the
limits,
(ii) Preshyaparayoga, i.e., sending an agent beyond the
limit,
(iii) Sabdanupata, i.e., drawing attention by making sound,
(iv) Rupanupata, i.e., drawing attention by making gestures
and signs, and
(v) Pudgalakshepa, i.e., throwing articles beyond the limit.
(8) Vow of ‘Anartha-dandavrata’ :
The partial transgressions of the third Silavrata, viz,
Anarthadandavrata are :
(i) Kandarpa, i.e., uttering obscure words,
(ii) Kautkuchya, i.e., gesticulating with obscure words,
(iii) Maukharya, i.e., gossip,
(iv) Asamikshyadhikarana, i.e., acting unthinking, and
(v) Upabhoga-paribhoganarthakya, i.e., accumulating too many
consumable and non-consumable objects.
(9) Vow of ‘Samayika’ :
The partial transgressions of the fourth Silavrata, viz.,
Samayika are :
(i) Mano-dushpranidhanam, i.e., misdirection of mind during
meditation,
(ii) kaya-dushpranidhanam, i.e., misdirection of body during
meditation,
(iii) Vak-dushpranidhanam, i.e., misdirection of speech
during meditation,
(iv) Anadara, i.e., lack of interest, and
(v) Smrutyanupasthana, i.e., forgetting of due formalities.
(10) Vow of ‘Proshdhopavasa’ :
The partial transgressions of the fifth Silavrata, viz.,
Proshadhopavasa, are :
(i) Apratyavekshita-apramarjita-utsarga, i.e, passing
excretion on the ground without examining and sweeping it,
(ii) Apratyavekshita-apramarjita-adana, i.e. laying down
things in a place without examining and sweeping it.,
(iii) Apratyavekshita-apramarjita-samstaropakramana, i.e,
making bed or seat in a place without examining and sweeping it,
(iv) Anadara, i.e., showing lack of interest or enthusiasum
(in the obligatory duties on account of feeling hunger), and
(v) Smrtyanupasthana, i.e., forgetting of due formalities
(or lack of concentration).
(11) Vow of “Upabhoga-paribhoga-parimana” :
The partial transgressions of the sixth Silavrata, viz.,
Upabhogh-paribhoga-parimana, are:
(i) Sachitta-ahara, i.e., eating articles having life (e.g.,
green vegetables),
(ii) Sachitta-sambandha-ahara, i.e., eating articles in
contact with those having life (e.g. using a green leaf as a plate),
(iii) Sachitta-sammisra-ahara. i.e., eating articles mixed
with those having life,
(iv) Abhishava-ahara, i.e. eating aphrodisiacal articles
(e.g., fermented and exciting, food), and
(v) Dhupakva-ahara, i.e., eating articles not well-cooked.
(12) Vow of “Atithisamvibhaga”
The partial transgressions of the seventh Silavrata, viz.,
Atithi-samvibhaga, are
(i) Sachitta-nikshepa, i.e., placing food on things having
life (e.g., on a green plantain leaf),
(ii) Sachitta-apidhana, i.e., covering food with things
having life,
(iii) Para-vyapadesa, i.e., delegation of host’s duties to
another,
(iv) Matsarya, i.e., lack of respect in giving or jealousy
towards another donor, and
(v) Kalatikrama, i.e., not serving meal at the proper time.
From the description of the five ‘aticharas’, i.e.,
transgressions, of the five main and seven supplementary vows it is quite
obvious that householders have been enjoined to observe their twelve vratas or
vows in such a way that they would avoid the five ‘aticharas’, i.e., the transgressions
of each of these vows. Since these twelve vows are designed so as to strengthen
and fortify the doctrine of Ahimsa, the avoidance of ‘aticharas’, i.e.,
transgressions, of these vows makes the observance of Ahimsa as faultless as
possible. Thus, the necessity of giving importance to carefulness in the
observance of Ahimsa has always been impressed on the minds of the householders
with a view to making the actual practice of these vows as correct as possible.