DOCTRINES OF
MAHAVIRA
1. The Philosophical Doctrines:
Since
Tirthankara Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara in the uniterrupted succession of
Tirthankaras of the Jaina tradition beginning from the lst Tirthankara
Rishabhadeva, he preached the doctrines which were already propounded by his 23
predecessors. Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara flourished 250 years before
Tirthankara Mahavira and during his life-time Parshvanatha did propagate the
basic doctrines of Jainism to the benefit of mankind. But after Parshvanath the conditions of life considerably
changed and common people were found
holding various beliefs and observing several practices which were completely
opposed to the beliefs and practices laid down by Jaina religion. Hence there was a dire necessity to bring back
the common masses to the right path advocated by the Jaina Tirthankaras. This urgent need was met by Tirthankara Mahavira during the sixth century
B. C. by emphasising the age-old principles of Jainism to all categories of persons scattered over different parts of
The basic principle in the philosophical doctrines of Tirthankara
Mahavira is that ‘Sat’ i. e. reality is uncreated and eternal and that it is
characterised by ‘Utpada’ i. e. origination or appearance, ‘Vyaya’ i. e.
destruction or disappearance and ‘dhrauv.ya’ i. e. permanence.
Further, every object of reality is found possessed of
infinite characters, both with respect to what it is and what it is not. It has its ‘paryayas’, i.e. modes and
‘gunas’,
i. e. qualities, through which persists the essential substratum
through all the times. The basic
substance with its qualities is something that is permanent, while the modes or accidental characters appear and
disappear. In this way both change and
permanence are facts of experience. For example, the soul or spirit is eternal
with its inseparable character of consciousness, but at the same time it is
subjected to accidental characters like pleasure and pain and super-imposed
modes such as body, etc. both of which are changing constantly. The gold, for
instance, with its colour and density is something that is permanent though it
is subjected to different shapes at different times.
Further, the philosophical
doctrines assert that in this world ‘dravyas’ i. e. the substances, are real
as they are characterized by existence. The substances are six in number and
they can be broadly divided into two major categories viz. ‘Jiva’, i. e. living and ‘ajiva’,
i. e. non-living.
(A) The ‘Jiva Dravya : The
jiva means
Atman
i. e. soul or spirit. The jiva is
essentially a unit of consciousness and there is an infinity of them.
The whole world is literally filled with them. The souls are substances and as
such they are eternal. Their characteristic mark is intelligence, which can
never be destroyed. The soul is ever all perfect and all powerful. But by ignorance it identifies itself with
matter and hence all its troubles and degradations start.
The souls are of two
kinds, viz. (a) ‘samsarin’, i. e. mundane or ‘baddha’, i.e. those in
bondage, and (b) ‘siddha’, i.e. liberated or ‘mukta’ i.e. those that
are free. Mundane souls are the embodied souls of living beings in the world and
are still subject to the cycle of Birth. On the other hand, the liberated souls
are those who have reached Nirvana or ‘Mukti’ i. e. freedom from
being embodied. It means that the
liberated souls will be embodied no more. Such
liberated souls dwell in the state of perfection at the top of the universe and
they have no more to do with worldly affairs. The liberated souls also
accomplish absolute purity and in their pure condition they possess four
attributes known as ‘Ananta-Chatushtaya’, Infinite Quaternary,
viz.
‘ananta-darshana’ i.e. infinite
perception,
‘ananta-Jnana’, i. e. infinite
knowledge,
‘ ananta-virya’, i.e. infinite power and
‘ananta-sukha’, i.e. infinite bliss.
Thus the most significant difference
between the mundane and the liberated soul consists in the fact that the former
is permeated with subtle matter known as ‘Karma’; while the latter is
absolutely pure and free from any material alloy.
The
mundane souls are of two kinds, viz.
(l) Sthavara,
i.e. the immobile or one-sensed souls, that is, having only the
sense of touch; and (2) Trasa, i.e. the mobiles or many-sensed
souls, that is, having bodies with more than one sense organ. The former are
associated with earth, water, fire, wind and plants, and the latter differ
among themselves according to the number of sense-organs.
(B)
The
Ajiva Drayas : The
non-living substances are of five kinds, namely,
(i)
Pudgala,
i.e. matter,
(ii)
Dharma, i.e. medium of motion,
(iii) Adharma. i.e. medium of rest,
(IV) Akasha, i.e. space and
(V) Kala, i.e. time.
Though all these are characterized by existence, the constitution of time
is slightly different : it has no existence in space, but is made up of partite
units. The matter is the non-living stuff
possessed of sense-qualities with varied functions and forms; the principles of
motion and rest facilitate all movements and
static states in this physical universe; all these substances are accommodated
in space; and it is the principle of time that marks continuity or change.
The
doctrines of Jainism emphasise that these six jiva and ajiva dravyas, i.e.
living and non-living substances, are externally existing, uncreated and with
no beginning in time. As substances they are eternal and unchanging, but their
modifications are passing through a flux of changes. Their mutual co-operation
and interaction explain all that we imply by the term ‘creation’. Hence the doctrines of Jainism do not admit
any intelligent ‘Creator’ who can be
credited with the making of this universe.
Further, the doctrines of
Jainism not only state that the whole universe can be divided into jiva and ajiva dravyas, i.e. the living
and the non-living substances, but also explain the nature and interaction of
these two elements. It is asserted, in short, that the living and the
non-living, by coming into contact with each other, forge certain energies
which bring about birth, death and various experiences of life; this process
could be stopped, and the energies already forged destroyed, by a course of
discipline leading to salvation. A close analysis of this brief statement shows
that it involves the following seven propositions :
(i) that there is something called the living;
(ii) that there is something called the non-living;
(iii)that the two come into contact with each other;
(iv)
that the contact
leads to the production of some energies;
(v) that the process of contact could be stopped;
(vi) that the existing energies
could also be exhausted; and
(vii) that the salvation could be
achieved.
These seven propositions are called the
seven tattvas or realities in Jaina philosophy. These tattvas are termed as follows :-
(i) Jiva, i.e. living substance.
(ii) Ajiva, i.e. matter or non-living substance,
(iii) Ashrava, i.e. the influx of Karmic matter into the soul,
(iv) Bandha, i. e. bondage of soul by Karmic matter,
(v) Samvara, i. e. the stopping
of Ashrava,
(vi) Nirjara, i.e the gradual removal of Karmic matter, and
(vii) Moksha, i.e. the attainment of perfect freedom.
(i)
and (ii) Jiva and Ajiva :-Out of these seven tattvas, the first two
deal with the nature and enumeration of the eternal substance of nature, and
the remaining five with the interaction between these two substances, viz. soul
and matter. (iii) Ashrava: The third
principle Ashrava signifies the
influx of Karmic matter, into the constitution of the soul. Combination of Karmic matter with Jiva is due to Yoga. Yoga
is the activity of mind, speech and body. Thus
Yoga is the channel of Ashrava. The physical
matter which is actually drawn to the soul cannot be perceived by the senses as
it is very fine. (iv) Bandha : When the Karmic
matter enters the soul, both get imperceptibly mixed with each other. Bandha or bondage is
the assimilation of matter which is fit to form Karmas by the soul as it is
associated with passions. The union of
spirit and matter does not imply a complete annihilation of their natural
properties, but only a suspension of their functions, in varying degree,
according to the quality and quantity of the material absorbed. Thus, the
effect of the fusion of the soul and matter is manifested in the form of a
compound personality which partakes of the nature of the both, without actually
destroying either. The causes of Bandha are five, viz.,
(a) Mithyādarshana, i.e. wrong belief or faith,
(b) Avirati, i.e. vowlessness or non-renunciation,
(c) Pramada, i.e. carelessness
(d) Kashaya, i.e. passions, and
(e) Yoga, i.e. vibrations in the
soul through mind, speech and body.
(v) Samvara :
Effective states of desire and aversion, and activity of thought, speech or
body are the conditions that attract Karmas, good and bad, towards the
soul. When those conditions are removed,
there will be no Karmas approaching the Jiva, that is complete Samvara- a sort
of protective wall shutting out all the Karmas is established round the self.
Thus Samvara is the stoppage of inflow of Karmic matter into the
soul. There are several ways through which the stoppage could be effected. (vi)
Nirjara : Nirjara means the falling away of Karmic matter from the
soul. The soul will be rendered free by the automatic falling out of the Karmas
when they become ripe. But this is a lengthy
process. The falling away may be deliberately brought through the practice of
austerities. Thus Nirjara is of two kinds. The natural maturing of a Karma and
its separation from the soul is called Savipaka Nirjara and
inducing a Karma to leave the soul, before it gets ripened by means of ascetic
practices, is called Avipaka Nirjara. (vii) Moksha : Moksha or liberation is the freedom from all Karmic matter, owing to the non-existence of the cause of bondage and the
shedding of all the Karmas. Thus complete freedom of the soul from Karmic
matter is called Moksha. It is attained when the soul and matter are separated
from each other. The separation is effected when all the Karmas have left the
soul, and no more Karmic matter can be attracted towards it.
2. The Doctrine
of Karma :
The fundamental principles of Jaina Philosophy entail the doctrine of
Karma. These principles assert that mudane souls exist in this world from time
eternal in association with matter. Of course, the character of this association
or bondage is freely and constantly being changed; but the fact and condition
of the bondage of the soul by matter persists through all these changes. This
association leads to further contact and so the cycle goes on till the
association is severed in such a manner as to avoid any fresh contact.
This contact of soul with matter
takes place in this manner. The soul is surrounded by a large volume of fine
and subtle matter called Karma. When the soul tries to do anything, then
instantly the surrounding particles of matter cling to it just as the particles
of dust stick to the body besmeared with oil. Like water in milk these
particles of matter get completely assimilated with soul and remain in this
condition throughout life as well as in its migrations from one body to
another. The connection of soul and matter is real; otherwise in a pure state
the soul would have flown to the highest point in the universe as the soul is
the lightest of all substances. As this
connection or bondage is effected by the Karma or deed or activity of the soul,
the subtle matter which combines the soul is termed as Karma.
Thus the Karma is something material
and it produces in the soul certain conditions, just as a medical pill, when
introduced into the body, produces therein manifold effects. The Karmic matter remains with the soul
and binds it in the circuit of births as gods, men, denizens of hell and
sub-human beings. Since the presence of
Karmic matter in the soul is the cause of cycle of births and deaths and of all
conditions of life, the soul must be made free from the Karmic matter. For this the influx of Karmic matter must be
stopped by cultivating pure thoughts and actions; and the stock of existing
Karmic matter must be consumed by the practice of religious austerities. In
this way when the Karmas are completely destroyed. the soul becomes liberated
with all its potential qualities fully developed. This liberated and perfect
soul is an embodiment of infinite bliss and other qualities. It should,
therefore, be the aim of every individual to achieve this perfect and natural condition of soul
by one's own efforts. In this regard the Jaina philosophy clearly asserts that
the attainment of the freedom of the soul from the Karmic matter entirely
depends on one's own proper deeds or actions and not on the favours of human or
divine beings. Just as the interacting eternal substances (viz. Dravyas) postulated
in Jainism admit no Creator, so also
the inviolable law of Karma makes man the master of his destiny and dispenses
away with the favourite theistic idea that some divinity bestows on man favours
and frowns.
3. The
Doctrines of Nayavada and Syadvada :
According to Jaina philosophy, as
noted above, the object of knowledge is a huge complexity constituted of
substances, qualities and modifications, extended over past, present and future
times and infinite space, and simultaneously subjected to origination,
destruction and permanence. Such an object can be fully comprehended only in omniscience,
which is not manifested in the case of worldly beings who perceive through
their organs of senses. But the senses are the indirect means of knowledge, and
whatever they apprehend is partial like the proverbial perception of an
elephant by seven blind persons; each one touches only a part of the animal and
concludes that the animal is like a log of wood, like a fan, like a wall, etc.
The ordinary human being, therefore, cannot rise above the limitations of his
senses; so his apprehension of reality is partial and it is valid only from a
particular point of view known as ‘Naya’. Thus as Nayas are modes of
expressing things, there can be number of Nayas through which reality could be
expressed. For example, when different
kinds of gold ornaments are described from the point of view of the modes or
modifications of gold, it is termed the Paryayarthika-naya or the Paryaya-naya,
i.e. the modal point of view, and when gold ornaments are described
with regard to their substance, i.e. gold, and its inherent qualities, it is
termed the dravyarthika-naya or the dravya-naya, i.e. the substantial point
of view. On the same lines, in spiritual discussions, the things could be
described from vyavahara-naya, i.e. the common-sense of practical point of
view and also from nishchaya-naya, i.e. the realistic point
of view. In this way the system of
describing reality from different points of view is known as Nayavada.
it
is not enough if various problems about reality are merely understood from
different points of view. What one knows must be able to state truly and
accurately. This need is met by the doctrine of Syadvada or anekantavada,
i.e. many-sided view-point. The object of knowledge is a huge
complexity covering infinite modes ; human mind is of limited understanding;
and human speech has its imperfections in expressing the whole range of
experience. Under these circumstances all our statements are conditionally or
relatively true. Hence every statement
must be qualified with the term ‘Syat’, i.e. ‘somehow’, or in a way,
with a view to emphasise its conditional or relative character. In this way on the basis of anekanta-vada
or Syadvada, while describing a thing seven assertions, seemingly
contradictory but perfectly true, can be made in a following manner:
(i) Syadasti, i.e. showhow it is,
(ii) Syannasti, i.e. somehow it is not,
(iii)
Syadasti-nasti, i.e. somehow it is and it is not,
(IV)
Syadavaktavyam, i.e., somehow it is
indescribable,
(v) Syadasti cha avaktavyam Cha, i.e. somehow
it is and is indescribable,
(vi) Syannasti cha avaktavyam cha, i.e. somehow it is not and is indescribable, and
(vii) Syadasti nasti cha avaktavyam cha, i.e. somehow it is, is not and is indescribable.
For example, a man is the father, and is not the father and
is both—are perfectly intelligible statements, if one understands the point of
view from which they are made. In
relation to a particular boy he is the father ; in relation to another boy he
is not the father; in relation to both the boys taken together he is the father
and is not the father. Since both the
ideas cannot be conveyed in words at the same time, he may be called
indescribable : still he is the father and is indescribable ; and so on. Thus,
this doctrine of Anekantavada is neither self-contradictory nor vague or
indefinite ; on the contrary, it represents a very sensible view of things in
a systematized form.
Further,
this doctrine of anekantavada is also called the doctrines of Sapta-bhangi,
i.e. the doctrine of sevenfold predication, because these seven
possible modes of expression can be used while describing a thing.
4. The Doctrine
of Path to Liberation :
From
the basic principles of Jaina philosophy, it is evident that the inherent
powers of the soul are crippled by its association with karmic matter and that
is why every person is found in an imperfect state. The Jaina philosophy also
asserts that real and everlasting happiness will be obtained by a person only
when the Karmas are completely removed from the soul and that eventhough man is
imperfect at present, it is quite possible for him to rid himself of the Karmas
by his own personal efforts without any help from an outside agency. The
highest happiness is to escape from the Cycle of Births and Deaths and be a
liberated soul, that is, to obtain Moksha. This word is full of sorrow and
trouble and it is quite necessary to achieve the aim of transcendental bliss by
a sure method. When the goal has been
fixed the next question arises regarding the way how to achieve that
objective. To this question Jainism has a definite answer. It emphatically states that Samyag-darshana,
i.e. right belief, Samyag jnana, i.e. right knowledge, and Samyag-Charitra,
i.e. right conduct, together constitute the path to liberation.
Right belief, right knowledge and right conduct are called Ratnatraya, or the three
jewels, in Jaina philosophy. These
three are not different paths but form together a single path. These three must be present together
to constitute the path of liberation. Since
all the three are emphasised equally, and since the Mokshamarga, i.e. the path
of liberation, is impossible without the comprehension of all the three, it is
obvious that the Jaina philosophy is not prepared to admit any one of these
three in isolation as means of salvation.
That is why it is emphatically laid down that for attaining liberation
all the three must be simultaneously pursued. It is contended that just as to effect a cure of a malady, faith in the
efficacy of a medicine, knowledge of its use, and actual taking of it,
constitute the three essential things together, so also to secure emancipation
of the soul, faith in the efficacy of Jainism, its knowledge and its actual
observance, from the three quite indispensable things together. The path of liberation is at times
compared to a ladder with its two side poles and the central rungs forming the
steps. The side poles are right belief and right knowledge and the rungs or
steps are the gradual stages of right conduct. It is possible to ascend the
ladder only when all the three are sound. The
absence of one makes the ascent impossible. Thus
a simultaneous pursuit of right belief, right knowledge and right conduct is
enjoined upon the people. The ethical doctrines of Jainism, both for the
householders and the monks, are based on this path of liberation comprising
(I) right belief, (TI) right knowledge and (III) right conduct.
(I) Right
Belief :
Of the three jewels, right
belief comes first and forms the basis upon which the other two jewels rest. It
is laid down that one must, by all possible means, first attain right belief or
the basic conviction on the fundamentals; because only on its acquisition,
knowledge and conduct become right.
Right Belief means true and firm conviction in the seven tattvas, i.e.
principles of Jainism as they are and without any perverse notion. The belief
that the Jaina Tirthankaras are the true Gods, the Jaina Sastras, i.e. the sacred
books, the true scripture, and the Jaina Saints the true Preceptors, is called
Right Belief.
The
possession of Right Belief or faith by a person is always considered most
essential in his efforts to achieve liberation. It is specifically asserted that asceticism without faith is
definitely inferior to faith without asceticism and that even a low caste man
possessing right faith can be considered as divine being. In this way the right
belief is given procedence over right knowledge and right conduct because it
acts as a pilot guiding the soul towards Moksha i.e. liberation.
(II) Right Knowledge :
On attaining right belief it is
considered desirable to strive after right knowledge. Although right belief and
right knowledge are contemporaneous, there is yet a clear relation of cause
and effect between them, just as there is between a lamp and its light. Right
knowledge is that knowledge which reveals the nature of things neither
insufficiently, nor with exaggeration, nor falsely, but exactly as it is and
that too with certainty. Such knowledge must be free from doubt, perversity and
vagueness. Jainism insists that right
knowledge cannot be attained, unless belief of any kind in its opposite, i.e.
in wrong knowledge, is banished.
(III) Right
Conduct :
Right Conduct includes the rules of
discipline which restrain all censurable movements of speech, body and mind,
weaken and destroy all passionate activity and lead to non-attachment and
purity. Right conduct presupposes the presence of right
knowledge which presupposes right belief. Therefore it is enjoined upon the
persons who have secured right belief and right knowledge to observe the rules
of right conduct as the destruction of Karmic matter can be accomplished only
through the right conduct. Right Conduct
is of two kinds, viz. SakalaCharitra, i.e. perfect or
unqualified conduct and Vikala-Charitra, i.e. imperfect and
qualified conduct, and of these two kinds the unqualified one is observed by
ascetics who have renounced worldly ties and the qualified by laymen still
entangled in the world.
5. The :Ethical Doctrines:
Along with laying down the path to
liberation, Jainism has also prescribed the definite rules of conduct to be
followed both by the householders and the ascetics. All these rules are
directed towards the main aim of achieving freedom of the soul from the Karmic
matter, i.e. attaining liberation. The
rules of conduct have been so designed that all persons would be in a position
to follow them. Accordingly the rules of conduct have been divided into two
categories, viz.
(I) Sagara-dharma,
i.e. those prescribed for laymen, and
(II) Anagara-dharma,
i.e. those prescribed for ascetics.
It is obvious that the rules for the laity are less rigid than those for
the saints because the laymen have not renounced worldly activities for eking
out their livelihood.
(I) Rules of Conduct for Laymen :
The
householders are expected to observe twelve vratas, i.e. vows, consisting of (A)
five Anuvratas,
i.e. small vows and (B) seven Shilavratas, i.e. supplementary vows.
These vows form the central part of the ethical code and by their observance
laymen can maintain constant progress in their spiritual career aimed at the
attainment of final liberation.
(A) Anuvratas :
The five main vratas, i.e. vows, to be observed by all
are :-
(i) Ahimsa, i.e. abstention from violence or
injury to living beings,
(ii) Satya, i.e. abstention from
false speech,
(iii) Asteya. i.e. abstention from
theft,
(iv) Brahmacharya, i.e. abstention from sexuality or unchastity, and
(v) Aparigraha, i.e. abstention from greed
for worldly possessions.
If
these vows are very strictly observed they are known as Mahavratas, i.e., great
vows and naturally these are meant for the ascetics. Laymen, however, cannot
observe the vows so strictly and therefore they are allowed to practise them so
far as their conditions permit. Therefore, the same vratas, i.e. vows, when
partially observed are termed as Anuvratas, i.e. small vows. For the fixing of these five vows in the
mind, there are five kinds of Bhavanas i.e., attendant meditations,
for each of the vows and every person is expected to think over them again and
again. Further, every person must
meditate that the five faults meant to be avoided in the vows are pain personified
and are of dangerous and censurable character in this world. Moreover, every
person must meditate upon the following four virtues which are based upon the
observance of these five vows :
(i) Maitri, i.e. friendship with all living
beings,
(ii)
Pramoda, i.e., delight at the sight of beings better
qualified or more advanced than ourselves on the path of liberation,
(iii) Karunya, i.e., compassion for the afflicted, and
(iv) Madhyastha,
i.e., tolerance or indifference to those
who are uncivil or illbehaved.
The observance of the five anuvratas and
refraining from the use of wine, flesh and honey are regarded as eight Mulagunas,
i.e., the basic or primary virtues of a house-holder. For minimizing
injury to living beings, complete abstinence of wine, flesh and honey is
advocated and every householder must necessarily possess these eight primary or
fundamental virtues.
These five
vows form the basis of Jaina ethics. They
give a definite outlook on life and create a particular type of mental
attitude. The very essence of Jaina philosophy is transformed into action in
the shape of observance of these five vows. Though the vows on their face
appear to be mere abstentions from injury, falsehood, theft, sexuality and
greed for worldly attachments, their implications are really extensive and
they permeate the entire social life of the followers of Jainism.
Further, three things are
enjoined in the matter of avoidance of the five faults of injury, falsehood,
theft, etc. In the first place, a person should not commit any fault
personally, secondly, he should not incite others to commit such an act, and,
thirdly, he should not even approve of it subsequent to its commission by
others. (i) Himsa, i.e. injury, has been defined as hurting of the vitalities
caused through want of proper care and caution. But the meaning is not limited
to this definition alone. Piercing, binding, causing pain, overloading and
starving or not feeding at proper times, are forms of himsa and as such must be
avoided. (ii) Asatya, i.e. falsehood, in
simple terms, is to speak hurtful words. But spreading false doctrines,
revealing the secrets and deformities of others, backbiting, making false
documents, and breach of trust are all forms of falsehood and should be
abstained from. (iii) Chaurya, i.e. theft, is to take anything
which is not given. Imparting instructions on the method of committing theft,
receiving stolen property, evading the injunction of the law (for example, by
selling things at inordinate prices), adultaration, and keeping false weights
and measures are all forms of theft and one must guard oneself against them.
(iv) Abrahma,
i.e. sexuality, is also of several forms. Match making (i.e. bringing about marriages, as a hobby),
unnatural gratification, indulging in voluptuous speech, and visiting immoral
married and unmarried women are all forms of unchastity or sexuality and should
be avoided. (v) Parigraha, i.e. greed for worldly possessions, consists in
desiring more than what is needed by an individual. Accumulating even
necessary articles in large numbers, expressing wonder at the prosperity of
another, excessive greed, and changing the proportions of existing possessions
are all forms of parigraha and should be discarded. This vow of aparigraha
or parigrahaparimana recommends that a householder should fix,
beforehand, the limit of his maximum belongings, and should, in no case, exceed
it. If he ever happens to earn
more than that, he must spend it away in charities, the best and recognized
forms of which are distribution of medicince, spread of knowledge, provision
for saving the lives of people in danger, and feeding the hungry and the poor.
Among
these five main vows the utmost importance is given to Ahimsa, i.e., avoidance of
injury. This noble principle of Ahimsa has been recognized by
practically all religions but Jainism alone preaches the full significance of Ahimsa to
such an extent that Jainism and Ahimsa have become synonymous terms.
Jainism emphatically asserts that “Ahimsa Parmo Dharmah”, i.e. Ahimsa is the
highest religion. The philosophy of Jainism and its rules of conduct are based
on the foundations of Ahimsa which has been consistently
followed to its logical
conclusion. That is why
among the five main vows first place has been given to the observance of Ahimsa. Ahimsa is regarded as the principal
vow and the other four vows are considered to be merely details of the first
vow. It is emphasised that Himsa, i.e. injury, is included in
falsehood, theft, sexual impurity and possession of goods. Thus all the main
five vows are based on the principle of Ahimsa. That is why it is enjoined upon
every person to avoid Himsa under any pretexts. Himsa, i.e.
violence or injury, is considered of three kinds: (a) physical violence, which
covers killing, wounding and causing any physical pain; (b) violence in words
consists in using harsh words; and (c) mental violence implies bearing
ill-feeling towards others. Further, Himsa may be committed, commissioned or
consented to. A householder is unable to avoid all these in an ideal manner; so
he is expected to cause minimal injury to others. In view of the routine life of the people, injury is classified
under four heads: (i) first, there is Grharambhi Himsa, accidental injury in
digging, pounding, cooking and such other activities essential to daily living; (ii) secondly, there is Udyami Himsa, i.e., occupational
injury when a soldier fights, an agriculturist tills the land, etc., (iii)
thirdly, there is Virodhi Himsa, i.e. protective injury, when one protects
one's or other's life and honour against wild beasts and enemies; and (iv)
fourthly, there is Samkalpi Himsa, i.e. intentional injury,
when one kills beings simply for killing them as in hunting or butchery. A
householder is expected to abstain fully from intentional injury and as far as possible from the rest. It is the intention or the mental attitude
that matters more than the act. So one
has to take utmost care in keeping one's intentions pure and pious and abstain
from intentional injury.
(B) Shilavratas
:
Along with the five
Anuvratas,
i.e. small vows, there are seven Shilavratas, i.e. supplementary vows.
Just as the encircling walls guard towns, so do supplementary vows protect Anuvratas.
Therefore in order to practise the main Anuvratas, the Shilavratas
also must be practised by the householders.
The seven supplementary vows are as follows :-
(i) Digvrata, i.e. taking a lifelong vow to
limit his worldly activity to fixed points in all directions,
(ii) Deshavrata,
i.e. taking a vow to limit the above also for a limited area,
(iii)Anarthadanda-vrata, i.e. taking a vow not to commit purposeless sins, or to abstain from
wanton sinful activities,
(iv) Samayika, i.e. taking a vow to devote particular time everyday to contemplation or
meditation of the self for spiritual advancement,
(v)
Proshadhopavasa,
i.e. taking a vow to fast on four days of the month, namely, the two
eighth and the two fourteenth days of
the fortnight,
(vi)
Upabhoga-Paribhoga-Parimana, i.e. taking a vow
everyday limiting one's enjoyment of consumable and non-consumable things, and
(vii)
Atithi-Samvibhaga, i.e. taking a vow to take one's food
only after feeding the ascetics. or, in their absence the pious householders.
Out
of these seven Shilavratas, the first three are called Gunavratas, i.e.
multiplicative vows, because they raise the value of the five main Anuvratas;
and the remaining four are called Shikshavratas, i.e.
disciplinary vows, because they are preparatory for the discipline of an
ascetic life. Thus the five Anuvratas, the three Gunavratas
and the four Shikshavratas constitute the twelve vows
of a laymen. There are five aticharas, i.e. defects or partial
transgressions, for each of these twelve vows and they are to be avoided by the
observers of these vows.
The
most significant feature of these twelve vows is that by practising these vows
a layman virtually participates, to a limited extent and for a limited period
of time, in the routine of an ascetic without actually renouncing the
world. It is obvious that such practices
maintain a close tie between the laymen and the ascetics as both are actuated
by the same motive and are moved by the same religious ideals.
In
addition to the above twelve vows a house-holder is expected to practise in the
last moment of his life the process of Sallekhana, i.e. peaceful or voluntary
death. A layman is expected not only to live a disciplined life but also to die
bravely a detached death. This voluntary death is to be distinguished from
suicide which is considered by Jainism as a cowardly sin. It is laid down that when faced by
calamity, famine, old age and disease against which there is no remedy, a pious
householder should peacefully relinquish his body, being inspired by a higher
religious ideal. It is with a quiet and
detached mood he should face death bravely and voluntarily. This Sallekhana
is added to as an extra vow to the existing twelve vows of a
house-holder. Like other vows, Sallekhana has also got five aticharas,
i.e. partial transgressions, which are to be avoided by a
householder.
These rules of right conduct
prescribed for laymen have been conveniently divided into eleven Pratimas, i.e.
stages or steps. These Pratimas form a series of duties and
performances, the standard and duration of which rises periodically and which
finally culminates in an attitude resembling monkhood. Thus the pratimas rise
by degrees and every stage includes all the virtues practised in those
preceding it. The conception of eleven Pratimas reveals in the best manner the
rules of conduct prescribed for the laymen. The
eleven Pratimas
are as follows:
(i)
Darshana
Pratima, i.e. possessing the perfect, intelligent and well-reasoned faith in Jainism, that is,
having a sound knowledge of its doctrines and their applications in life.
(ii) Vrata Pratima. i.e. keeping up the twelve vows and the extra vow of Sallekhana.
(iii) Samayika Pratima, i.e. worshipping regularly, in general for forty-two minutes, three times
daily. Worship means self-contemplation and purifying one's ideas and emotions.
(iv) Proshadhopavasa Pratima, i.e. fasting regularly, as a rule, twice a fortnight in each lunar month.
(v) Sachitta-tyaga
pratima, i.e. refraining from eating uncooked vegetables, plucking
fruits from a tree and the like.
(vi)
Ratri-bhukta-tyaga Pratima, i.e. abstaining from
food
after sunset.
(vii)
Brahmacharya Pratima,i.e. maintaining sexual purity now assuming the strict aspect of celibacy
and also not decorating one's person.
(viii) Arambha-tyaga Pratima, i.e. abandonment of merely
worldly engagements and occupations.
(ix) Parigraha-tyaga pratima, i.e.
divesting oneself of Wealth
by dividing one's property among one’s heirs and training one-self
generally to bear the hardships incidental to a life of asceticism.
(x) Anumati-tyaga pratima, i.e.
increasing the rigour of living in the direction of asceticism and refraining
even from giving advice on matters relating to family honour, business and the
like.
(xi)
Uddishta-tyaga pratima, i.e. after renunciation of the householder’s life, retiring into
forest and adopting the rules laid down for the guidance of ascetics.
A householder is advised that
according to his ability and environment he should proceed stage by stage and
once he reaches the eleventh stage, he is fully prepared for practising the
severe course of ascetic life.
(II) Rules
of Conduct for Ascetics.
When a layman consistently observes
the rules of conduct prescribed for the householders and especially attains all
pratimas, he is qualified to become an ascetic.
In this way there is a close link between the two social orders of laity
and and ascetics. The order of laymen (including laywomen) is preliminary and,
in many cases, preparatory to the order of monks (including nuns). Because of this intimate relationship we
find that the rules prescribed for laymen and ascetics do not differ in kind
but in degree. The same rules of conduct observed by laymen are to be followed
by ascetics with the only difference that while laymen have to practise them
partially or less rigorously, ascetics have to observe them fully and more
rigorously. Thus the Anuvratas, i.e
small vows, of the householders become Mahavratas, i.e. great vows,
when practised by ascetics. This is obvious because the ascetic stage signifies
absolute renunciation of the world and the only objective in this stage is to
concentrate energy on the attainment of Moksha, i.e. liberation. Asceticism is
a higher course in spiritual training and it is in this stage real efforts are
made for the stoppage of influx of Karmas and the shedding of existing Karmas
with a view to attain liberation.
Therefore very minute rules of conduct are prescribed for the ascetics and the
latter have to observe them without any fault or transgression.
The stoppage of
influx of fresh Karmic matter into the Atman or soul is known as Samvara and it
is effected by following,
(a)
three kinds of Gupti, i.e. control,
(b)
five
kinds of Samiti, i.e. carefulness,
(c) ten kinks of
Dharma, i.e. virtues,
(d) twelve
kinds of Anupreksha, i.e. meditations or reflections,
(e) twenty-two kinds of Parishaha-Jaya, i.e. subdual of sufferings, and
(f) five kinds
of Charitra, i.e. conduct.
(a) The Guptis : The flow of
Karmas into the Atman or soul is caused by the activities of body, speech and
mind; so it is quite necessary for the ascetics to keep these channels of
influx under strict control, i.e. to observe the Guptis. The three guptis are
regulations with reference to controlling one’s inner nature, that is, they are
dictated by the principles of self-control, (i) The first of them is
Mano-Gupti, i.e. regulation of mind in such a way as to give room only to pure
thoughts. (ii) The second Vag-gupti, i.e. regulations of speech and it consists
in observing silence for a particular period or in speaking only as much as is
absolutely necessary. (iii) The third is Kaya-gupti, i.e. regulation of one's
bodily activity.
(b) The Samitis : It is just possible that even in performing the duties of an ascetic, the vows might be
transgressed out of inadvertence. Hence as a precautionery measure the Samitis,
i.e. acts of carefulness are prescribed. The Samitis are designed with a view
to cultivate the habit of carefulness in accordance with the principle of
Ahimsa, i.e. non-injury. The Samitis are prescriptions for the regulation of the movements of the body and are as follows
:-
(i) The Irya Samiti aims at
regulation of walking, so as not to injure any living being.
(ii) The
Bhasha Samiti regulates the mode of speech with a view to avoid the hurting of other's feelings by use of
offensive words.
(iii) The Eshana
Samiti regulates seeking or eating food so , as not to cause any
injury to any living being.
(iv) The Adana-Nikshepa
Samiti regulates the actions of taking or using, and of putting
away, anything whatsoever.
(v)
The Utsarga Samiti regulates
the movements connected with the answering of call of nature, etc.
Both the three Guptis and
five Samitis
are sometimes grouped together under the name of “Ashta-Pravachana-Mata”,
i.e. “The Eight mothers of the Creed”, on account of their
fundamental character.
(c) The Dharmas : It
is mainly due to the Kashayas, i.e. passions, that the soul
assimilates Karmas, hence the four passions of Krodha, i.e. angar, Mana, i.e.
pride, Maya,
i.e. deceptions and Lobha, i.e. greed, must be counteracted
by cultivating ten Uttama Dharmas, i.e. Supreme virtues, as
follows :
(i) Uttama-Kshama, i.e. supreme forgiveness,
(ii) Uttama-Mardava, i.e. Supreme tenderness
or humility,
(iii) Uttama-Arjava,i.e. Supreme
straightforwardness or
honesty,
(iv) Uttam-Shaucha, i.e. Supreme contentment or purity,
(v) Uttama-Satya
i.e. Supreme truthfulness.
(vi) Uttama-Samyama, i.e. Supreme Self-restraint,
(vii) Uttama-Tapa, i.e. Supreme austerities,
(viii) Uttama-Tyaga, i.e. Supreme renunciation,
(ix) Uttama-Akinchanya, i.e. Supreme non-attachment, and
(x)Uttama-Brahmacharya,
i.e. Supreme chastity.
These ten
virtues together are termed as Dashalakshana Dharma, i.e. the ten
observances.
(a) Anuprekshas :With a view to cultivate
the necessary religious attitude, it is enjoined on the ascetics to constantly
reflect on twelve religious topics know as Anuprekshas, i.e. meditations. It is laid down that these Anuprekshas should be
meditated upon again and again. The tweleve Anuprekshas are as follows :
(i) Anitya
anuprekshas, i.e. everything is subject to change or is transitory.
(ii)Asharana anupreksha, i.e. unprotectiveness or help-
lessness. The feeling that soul
is unprotected from fruition of Karmas, for example, death etc.
(iii) Samsara anupreksha, i.e. mundaneness. Soul moves in the
cycle of existences and cannot attain true happiness till it is cut off.
(iv)
Ekatva anuprelcsha, i.e. loneliness. I am alone, the doer of my actions and the
enjoyer of the fruits of them.
(v) Anyatva anupreksha, i.e.
separatness. The world, my relation
and friends, my body and mind, they are all distinct and separate from my real
self.
(vi) Ashuchi anupreksha, i.e. impurity. The body
is impure and dirty.
(vii) Ashrava anupreksha, i.e. inflow. The inflow of Karmas
is the cause of my mundane existence and it is the product of passions.
(viii) Samvara anupreksha, i.e. stoppage. The inflow of Karma must be stopped by cultivating
necessary virtues.
(ix) Nirjara anuprelcsha, i.e. shedding. Karmic matter should be destroyed or shaken
out of the soul by the practice of penances.
(x) Loka
anupreksha, i.e. universe. The
nature of the, universe and its constituent elements in all their vast variety
proving the insignificance and miserable nothingness of man in time and space.
(xi) Bodhi-durlabha anupreksha i.e. rarity of religious, knowledge.
It is difficult to attain right faith, knowledge and conduct.
(xii)
Dharma anupreksha, i.e. reflection on the true nature of
religion and especially on the threefold path of liberation as preached by the
conquerors.
Sometimes these Anuprekshas, are termed as
Bhavanas,
i.e.. contemplations.
(e) The Parishaha-Jaya : With a view to remain steady on the path of
liberation and to destroy the Karmic matter, ascetics should bear
cheerfully all the troubles that might cause them distraction or pain. These
troubles or hardships through which the ascetics have to pass are called the Parishahas,
i.e. sufferings. There are twenty-two Parishahas which monks are
expected to face unflinchingly. They are
:
(i)
Kshut, i.e. hunger,
(ii)
Pipasa, i.e. thirst,
(iii)
Shita, i.e. cold,
(iv)
Ushna, i.e. heat,
(v)
Damshamashaka,, i.e. insect-bite,
(vi)
Nagnya, i.e. nakedness,
(vii)
Arati, i.e. ennui,
or disagreeable surroundings,
(viii)
Stri, i.e. sex-passion,
(ix)
Charya, i.e. walking too
much,
(x)
Nishadya, i.e. continuous sitting in
one posture,
(xi) Shayva, i.e. resting on hard
earth,
(xii) Akrosha, i.e, abuse,
(xiii) Vadha, i.e. beating,
(xiv) Yachana,i.e begging,
(xv) Alabha, i.e. disappointment from getting no food,
(xvi) Roga, i.e. disease,
(xvii) Trnasparsha,, i.e. thorn-pricks,
(xviii)
Mala, i.e. body dirt and
impurities,
(xix) Satlcarapuraskara, i.e. disrespect shown by men,
(xx) Prajna, i.e. non-appreciation of learning,
(xxi) Ajnana, i.e, persistence of
ignorance, and
(xxii)
Adarshana, i,e, slack belief, for example, on failure to obtain supe-rnatural powers
even after great piety and austerities begin to doubt the truth of Jainism and
its teachings.
These Parishahas
should be ever endured without any feeling of vexation, by the ascetics who desire to
get rid of all cause for pain.
(f) The Charitra : The ascetics are also
expected to strive to observe five kinds of conduct as follows :
(i)
Samayika, i.e. equanimity,
(ii)
: Chhedopasthapana, i.e. recovery of, equanimity after a
fall from it, -
(iii)
Parihara-Vishuddhi, i.e. pure and absolute non-injury,
(iv)
Sukshma-Samparaya, i.e. all but entire freedom from passion, and
(v)
Yathakyata, i.e. ideal and
passionless conduct.
These five kinds of conduct help to maintain the spiritual
discipline of the ascetics,
Along with Samvara, i.e.
the stoppage of the influx of Karmic matter into the soul, the ascetics have
to strive to effect Nirjara, i.e. the gradual removal of Karmic matter from the soul if they have to
proceed further on their path of liberation. The main way to Nirjara i.e.
shedding of the Karmas, is the observance
of Tapa, i.e. penance or
austerities, which is included in the right conduct. Tapa, i.e. penance is twofold,
viz.
(a) Bahya Tapa, i.e. external austerities, referring to food and
physical activities and (b) Abhyantara
Tapa, i.e. internal
austerities, referring to spiritual discipline. Each
of these 2 types of Tapas is of six kinds.
(a) The Bahya
Tapa :The six external austerities are as follows :-
(i) Anashana, i.e. fasting,
(ii)
Avamodarya, i.e. eating less than one’s fill, or
less ,than one has appetite for,
(iii) Vritti-Parisamkhyana, i.e. taking a mental vow to accept food from a householder only if
certain conditions are fulfilled without letting any one know about the vow,
(iv)
Rasa-Parityaga, i.e. daily renunciation of one or
more of six kinds of delicacies namely, ghee (i.e. clarified butter), milk,
curds, sugar, salt and oil.
(v) Vivikta-Shayyasana,
i.e. sitting and sleeping in a secluded place, devoid of animate
beings, and
(vi ) Kayaklesha, i. e.
mortification of the body so long as the mind is not disturbed.
( b) The Abhyantara
Tapa : The six kinds of internal austerities are :
(i) Prayashchitta, i.e.
expiation or confession and repentance of sins,
(ii) Vinaya, i.e.
reverence or modest behaviour,
(iii)
Vaiyavrtya, rendering service
to other saints,
(iv) Svadhyaya, i.e. study of scriptures,
(v) Vyutsarga, i.e. giving up
attachment to the body, and
(vi) Dhyana, i.e. concentration of mind.
These external and internal penances
show what a rigorous life of self-denial the ascetics have to lead. The ascetic
is to sustain the body with minimum feeding and to take maximum work from it in
the attainment of his spiritual ideal. In
Jainism an elaborate technique of fasting has been evolved and the ascetic is
trained all along his career so efficiently that when the hour of death comes,
he accepts voluntary fasting and gives up the body as easily as one would throw
off the old garment. The ascetic has always to take exercise in fasting by
observing series of fasts differently arranged.
Among the internal penances special significance is attached to Dhyana, i.e. meditation, because it
is considered as the most important spiritual exercise whereby alone the soul
can make progress on the path to liberation and can destroy all the Karmas.
Attachment for beneficial and aversion from harmful objects have to be given up
to attain concentration of mind, which is the prerequisite of successful
meditation. It is always emphasised that the Shukla Dhyana i.e. pure meditation, ultimately leads the soul to
liberation because in Shukla Dhyana, an
attempt is made for complete cessation of physical, verbal and mental
activities. When the entire stock of
Karmas is exhausted by following the rules of conduct laid down by Jaina
ethics, the soul shoots up to the top of the universe where the liberated souls
stay for ever.