Author -
Dr. L. M. Singhvi
The Jain tradition which enthroned the
philosophy of ecological harmony and non‑violence as its lodestar
flourished for centuries side‑by‑side with other schools of thought
in ancient India. It formed a vital
part of the mainstream of ancient Indian life, contributing greatly to its
philosophical, artistic and political heritage. During certain periods of Indian history, many ruling elites as
well as large sections of the population were Jains, followers of the Jinas
(Spiritual Victors).
The ecological philosophy of Jainism which flows
from its spiritual quest has always been central to its ethics, aesthetics,
art, literature, economics and politics.
It is represented in all its glory by the 24 Jinas or Tirthankaras (Path‑finders)
of this era whose example and teachings have been its living legacy through the
millenia.
Although the ten million Jains estimated to live
in modern India constitute a tiny fraction of its population, the message and
motifs of the Jain perspective, its reverence for life in all forms, its
commitment to the progress of human civilization and to the preservation of the
natural environment continues to have a profound and pervasive influence on
Indian life and outlook.
In the twentieth century, the most vibrant and
illustrious example of Jain influence was that of Mahatma Gandhi, acclaimed as
the Father of the Nation. Gandhi’s
friend, Shrimad Rajchandra, was a Jain.
The two great men corresponded, until Rajchandra’s death, on issues of
faith and ethics. The central Jain
teaching of ahimsa (non‑violence) was the guiding principle of Gandhi’s
civil disobedience in the cause of freedom and social equality. His ecological philosophy found apt
expression in his observation that the greatest work of humanity could not
match the smallest wonder of nature.
The Jain ecological philosophy is virtually
synonymous with the principle of ahimsa (non‑violence) which runs through
the Jain tradition like a golden thread.
“Ahimsa parmo dharmah” (Non‑violence is
the supreme religion).
Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara
(Path‑finder) of this era, who lived 2500 years ago in north India,
consolidated the basic Jain teachings of peace, harmony and renunciation,
taught two centuries earlier by the Tirthankara Parshva, and for thousands of
years previously by the 22 other Tirthankaras of this era, beginning with
Adinatha Rishabha. Mahavira threw new
light on the perennial quest of the soul with the truth and discipline of
ahimsa. He said:
“There is nothing so small and subtle as the
atom nor any element so vast as space. Similarly, there is no quality of soul
more subtle than non‑violence and no virtue of spirit greater than
reverence for life.”
Ahimsa is a principle that Jains teach and
practice not only towards human beings but towards all nature. It is an unequivocal teaching that is at
once ancient and contemporary.
The scriptures tell us:
“All the Arhats (Venerable Ones) of the past,
present and future discourse, counsel, proclaim, propound and prescribe thus in
unison:
Do not injure, abuse, oppress, enslave, insult,
torment, torture or kill any creature or living being.”
In this strife‑torn world of hatred and
hostilities, aggression and aggrandizement, and of unscrupulous and unbridled
exploitation and consumerism, the Jain perspective finds the evil of violence writ
large.
The teaching of ahimsa refers not only to wars
and visible physical acts of violence but to violence in the hearts and minds
of human beings, their lack of concern and compassion for their fellow humans
and for the natural world. Ancient Jain
texts explain that violence (Ahimsa) is not defined by actual harm, for this
may be unintentional. It is the
intention to harm, the absence of compassion, that makes action violent. Without violent thought there could be no
violent actions. When violence enters
our thoughts, we remember Tirthankara Mahavira’s words:
“You are that which you intend to hit, injure,
insult, torment, persecute, torture, enslave or kill.”
Mahavira proclaimed a profound truth for all
times to come when he said:
“One who neglects or disregards the existence of
earth, air, fire, water and vegetation disregards his own existence which is
entwined with them”
Jain cosmology recognizes the fundamental
natural phenomenon of symbiosis or mutual dependence, which forms the basis of
the modern day science of ecology. It
is relevant to recall that the term `ecology’ was coined in the latter half of
the nineteenth century from the Greek word oikos, meaning `home’, a place to
which one returns. Ecology is the
branch of biology which deals with the relations of organisms to their
surroundings and to other organisms.
The ancient Jain scriptural aphorism
Parasparopagraho jivanan (All life is bound together by mutual support and
interdependence) is refreshingly contemporary in its premise and
perspective. It defines the scope of
modern ecology while extending it further to a more spacious ‘home’. It means that all aspects of nature belong
together and are bound in a physical as well as a metaphysical
relationship. Life is viewed as a gift
of togetherness, accommodation and assistance in a universe teeming with
interdependent constituents.
The concept of universal interdependence
underpins the Jain theory of knowledge, known as anekantava or the doctrine of
manifold aspects. Anekantavada
describes the world as a multifaceted, everchanging reality with an infinity of
viewpoints depending on the time, place, nature and state of the one who is the
viewer and that which is viewed.
This leads to the doctrine of syadvada or
relativity, which states that truth is relative to different viewpoints
(nayas). What is true from one point of
view is open to question from another.
Absolute truth cannot be grasped from any particular viewpoint alone
because absolute truth is the sum total of all the different viewpoints that
make up the universe.
Because it is rooted in the doctrines of
anekantavada and syadvada, Jainism does not look upon the universe from an anthropocentric,
ethnocentric or egocentric viewpoint.
It takes into account the viewpoints of other species, other communities
and nations and other human beings.
The discipline of non‑violence, the
recognition of universal interdependence and the logic of the doctrine of
manifold aspects, leads inexorably to the avoidance of dogmatic, intolerant,
inflexible, aggressive, harmful and unilateral attitudes towards the world
around. It inspires the personal quest
of every Jain for samyaktva (equanimity) towards both jiva (animate beings) and
ajiva (inanimate substances and objects).
It encourages an attitude of give and take and of live and let live. It offers a pragmatic peace plan based, not
on the domination of nature, nations or other people, but on an equanimity of
mind devoted to the preservation of the balance of the universe.
Although the term `ahimsa’ is stated in the
negative (a=non, himsa=violence), it is rooted in a host of positive aims and
actions which have great relevance to contemporary environmental concerns.
Ahimsa is an aspect of daya (compassion, empathy
and charity), described by a great Jain teacher as “the beneficent mother of
all beings” and “the elixir for those who wander in suffering through the ocean
of successive rebirths.”
Jiva‑daya means caring for and sharing
with all living beings, tending, protecting and serving them. It etrails universal friendliness (maitri),
universal forgiveness (kshama) and universal fearlessness (abhaya).
Jains, whether monks, nuns or householders,
therefore, affirm prayerfully and sincerely, that their heart is filled with
forgiveness for all living beings and that they have sought and received the
forgiveness of all beings, that they crave the friendship of all beings, that
all beings give them their friendship and that there is not the slightest
feeling of alienation or enmity in their heart for anyone or anything. They also pray that forgiveness and
friendliness may reign throughout the world and that all living beings may
cherish each other.
Jains do not acknowledge an intelligent first
cause as the creator of the universe.
The Jain theory is that the universe has no beginning or end. It is traced to jiva and ajiva, the two
everlasting, uncreated, independent and coexisting categories. Consciousness is jiva. That which has no consciousness is ajiva.
There are five substances of ajiva:
Dharma ‑ the medium of motion
Adharma ‑ the medium of rest
Akasha ‑ space
Pudgala ‑ matter
Kala ‑ time
Pudgala (matter) has form and consists of
individual atoms (paramanu) and conglomerates of atoms (skandha) which can be
seen, heard, smelt, tasted and/or touched.
According to Jains, energy, or the phenomena of sound, darkness, shade,
heat, light and the like, is produced by conglomerates of atoms.
The jiva (soul) has no form but, during its
worldly career, it is vested with a body and becomes subject to an inflow of
karmic `dust’ (asravas). These are the
subtle material particles that are drawn to a soul because of its worldly
activities. The asrawas bind the soul
to the physical world until they have brought about the karmic result when they
fall away `like ripe fruit’ by which time other actions have drawn more asravas
to the soul.
With the exception of the Arihantas (the Ever‑Perfect)
and the Siddhas (the Liberated), who have dispelled the passions which provide
the `glue’ for the asravas, all souls are in karmic bondage to the
universe. They go through a continuous
cycle of death and rebirth in a personal evolution that can lead at last to
moksha (eternal release). In this cycle
there are countless souls at different stages of their personal evolution; earth‑bodies,
water‑bodies, fire‑bodies, air‑bodies, vegetable‑bodies,
and mobile bodies ranging from bacteria, insects, worms, birds and larger
animals to human beings, infernal beings and celestial beings.
The Jain evolutionary theory is based on a grading
of the physical bodies containing souls according to the degree of sensory
perception. All souls are equal but are
bound by varying amounts of asravas (karmic particles) which is reflected in
the type of body they inhabit. The
lowest form of physical body has only the sense of touch. Trees and vegetation have the sense of touch
and are therefore able to experience pleasure and pain, and have souls. Mahavira taught that only the one who
understood the grave demerit and detriment caused by destruction of plants and
trees understood the meaning and merit of reverence for nature. Even metals and stones might have life in
them and should not be dealt with recklessly.
Above the single‑sense jivas are micro‑organisms
and small animals with two, three or four senses. Higher in the order are the jivas with five senses. The highest grade of animals and human
beings also possess rationality and intuition (manas). As a highly evolved form of life, human
beings have a great moral responsibility in their mutual dealings and in their
relationship with the rest of the universe.
It is this conception of life and its eternal
coherence, in which human beings have an inescapable ethical responsibility,
that made the Jain tradition a cradle for the creed of environmental protection
and harmony.
The five vratas (vows) in the Jain code of
conduct are:
Non‑violence in thought, word and deed,
To seek and speak the truth,
To behave honestly and never to take anything by
force or theft,
To practise restraint and chastity in thought,
word and deed,
To practice non‑acquisitiveness.
The vow of ahimsa is the first and pivotal
vow. The other vows may be viewed as
aspects of ahimsa which together form an integrated code of conduct in the
individual’s quest for equanimity and the three jewels (ratna‑traya) of
right faith, right knowledge and right conduct.
The vows are undertaken at an austere and
exacting level by the monks and nuns and are then called maha‑vratas
(great vows). They are undertaken at a
more moderate and flexible level by householders and called the anu‑vratas
(`atomic’ or basic vows).
Underlying the Jain code of conduct is the
emphatic assertion of individual responsibility towards one and all. Indeed, the entire universe is the forum of
one’s own conscience. The code is
profoundly ecological in its secular thrust and its practical consequences.
The transgressions against the vow of non‑violence
include all forms of cruelty to animals and human beings. Many centuries ago, Jains condemned as evil
the common practice of animal sacrifice to the gods. It is generally forbidden to keep animals in captivity, to whip,
mutilate or overload them or to deprive them of adequate food and drink. The injunction is modified in respect of
domestic animals to the extent that they may be roped or even whipped
occasionally but always mercifully with due consideration and without anger.
Except for allowing themselves a judicious use
of one‑sensed
life in the form of vegetables, Jains would not
consciously take
any life for food or sport. As a community they are strict
vegetarians, consuming neither meat, fish nor
eggs. They
confine themselves to vegetable and milk
products
By taking the basic vows, the Jain laity
endeavor to live a life of moderation and restraint and to practice a measure
of abstinence and austerity. They must
not procreate indiscriminately lest they overburden the universe and its
resources. Regular periods of fasting
for self‑purification are encouraged.
In their use of the earth’s resources Jains take
their cue from “the bee [that] sucks honey in the blossoms of a tree without
hurting the blossom and strengthens itself’.
Wants should be reduced, desires curbed and consumption levels kept
within reasonable limits. Using any
resource beyond one’s needs and misuse of any part of nature is considered a
form of theft. Indeed, the Jain faith
goes one radical step further and declares unequivocally that waste and
creating pollution are acts of violence.
Accumulation of possessions and enjoyment for
personal ends should be minimized.
Giving charitable donations and one’s time for community projects
generously is a part of a Jain householder’s obligations. That explains why the Jain temples and
pilgrimage centers are well‑endowed and well‑managed. It is this sense of social obligation born
out of religious teachings that has led the Jains to found and maintain
innumerable schools, colleges, hospitals, clinics, lodging houses, hostels,
orphanages, relief and rehabilitation camps for the handicapped, old, sick and
disadvantaged as well as hospitals for ailing birds and animals. Wealthy individuals are advised to recognize
that beyond a certain point their wealth is superfluous to their needs and that
they should manage the surplus as trustees for social benefit.
The five fundamental teachings of Jainism and
the five‑fold Jain code of conduct outlined in this Declaration are
deeply rooted in its living ethos in unbroken continuity across the
centuries. They offer the world today a
time‑tested anchor of moral imperatives and a viable route plan for
humanity’s common pilgrimage for holistic environmental protection, peace and
harmony in the universe.