Author ‑ Dr. Ratan Kumar Jain, Siddhantacharya
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Preliminary
1.2 Historical Background
1.3 Parallel Developments In Indian Culture
MAHAVIR ‑ THE
TWENTY‑FOURTH TIRTHANKAR
2.1 Life Sketch Of Bhagwan Mahavir
2.2 Some Significant Points
JAIN PHILOSOPHY
3.1 Multiplicity Of
View Points (ANEKANTAVADA) And Relativism (SYADVADA)
3.2 Concept Of Entity (DRAVYA)
3.3 Structural View Of The Universe
3.4 Karma Theory
3.5 Theory Of Human Excellence
3.6 Theory Of Knowledge
3.7 Jain Ethics ‑ Path To Salvation
(MOKSHAMARG)
CERTAIN SPECIAL
FEATURES OF JAINISM
4.1 The Ontological View
4.2 Concept Of Godhood
4.3 Pessimism vs. Optimism
4.4 The Problem Of Human Peace
4.5 Truth And Nonviolence
4.6 Jainism As Applied Intelligence
BIBILIOGRAPHY
1.1 PRELIMINARY
Man is endowed with
the faculty of thinking. On gaining
self‑consciousness,
he tries to understand the meaning of life and the nature of the universe
around him. He gropes in various
directions. Such speculation culminates
in systematic
reasoning. His quest produces some results. He forms certain concepts and adopts a
course of action for advancement. Man
has been involved in these exercises since the beginning of time, Such an
endeavor of human intellect gives rise to philosophy ‑ a theory of life
and the nature of the universe, and religion ‑ a code of conduct for
spiritual advancement.
1.2 HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
The dawn of the
"Historical Period" sometime between the tenth and seventh centuries
before Christ, is remarkable in the
history of mankind.
The period witnessed an upsurge of human spirit and endeavor. Intense waves of activity of the human
intellect swept many lands where man had emerged from the Bronze Age. Zoroaster gave a new creed to Iran;
Confucius and Laotse taught wisdom to China; Jews in their Babylonian captivity
developed unflinching faith in Jehovah; Greece emerged as the pioneer of
European culture, and her philosophers tackled the problems of life and
existence; Rome was founded.
At this time, the
situation in India was quite different.
A highly complex civilization and a noble culture had been
flourishing in the
country for centuries (1). There had
been a continuous upheaval of mind and spirit, and an all pervasive
effervescence was weaving the fabric of Indian culture. The centuries old dream of universal
conquerors (chakravartis), both in political as well as in religious fields,
was in the process of being realized.
It is evident from the philosophy of the Upanishads that human
intelligence and metaphysical concepts had sufficiently developed in India
before the emergence of the so‑called dawn of the "Historical
Period". The foundations had been
laid down on which the six systems of Indian philosophy were later built. The
ideas developed by the sages of the
Upanishads led to
expectations which were fulfilled in later periods. They provide us with the evidence that different points of view
had begun to emerge. The considerable
intellectual activity
going on in different directions was awaiting its full philosophical maturity.
The sixth century
B.C. marked the beginnings of
philosophical speculations in many lands, particularly in Greece. However, in India, it was the age of
considerable philosophical progress. Elsewhere philosophy and religion pursued
quite different and independent paths.
Although the two had, at times, crossed paths and one had influenced the
other, philosophy and religion never merged into one. In India on the other hand, it was and still is not possible to
differentiate between the two. Unlike
the Greek, the Indian philosophy was not confined to the academies. It became the religion of the masses. While the Indian sages and intellectual
thinkers found solutions for the problems of life and existence that were
basically philosophical, their teachings created and shaped components of a
religious system. In course of time,
these thinkers became prophets and saints for their religious followers.
1.3 PARALLEL DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIAN CULTURE
There have been two
parallel developments of thought in the main stream of Indian philosophy; one
emphasizing the principle of self‑discipline and nonviolence (ahimsa),
and the other, the sacrificial duties, for the salvation of human beings. There is evidence to suggest that the
religious and philosophical ideas were present in the consciousness of the
people even before the arrival of Aryan races in India.
In the sixth century
B.C., there was an upsurge of ideas leading to new philosophical tenets and
religious systems, often of a revolutionary character. The growth of the new religious
systems and
philosophical doctrines modified the outlook of the future. These systems had very little in common with
the Vedic rituals. Freedom of thoughts
was their common feature. The
Brahminical scriptures have formulated four life stages
(ashrams); The
student, the householder, the hermit and the ascetic. In this scheme, the last two stages developed a class of
wandering ascetics, who freed themselves from the obligations of prevailing
religious ideas and practices, and thought out a new the fundamental problems
of life and existence. Their number
increased and their constant movements brought them into frequent association
with one another. The result was a
vigorous reorientation of the religious life and a twofold reaction ensued.
First, the thinking
mind was in search of higher knowledge (para vidya) which was indestructible
(aksharam). The
philosophical mind of
the Upanishads turned to VEDANTA(2)
while revolting
against the sacrifices. This introduced
a new element of of enlightenment (Jnana marg) through meditation (Dhyan)
instead of the traditional approach of sacrificial work (karma marg). Meditation was assigned a higher value in
the new scheme of philosophical development.
As a result, more intrepid thinkers arose, some who wanted to disregard
the Vedas completely and who openly rebelled against them. Jainism and Buddhism, among others,
reflected a powerful systematic and philosophical departure from the massive
and elaborate Vedic sacrifices and ceremonies.
Second, there grew a
monotheistic movement which denied the necessity, if not also the reality, of
the Vedic gods together with the preeminence of the Brahmins in spiritual
matters, and accepted devotion (bhakti marg) as the way of pleasing Gods such
as Vishnu or Shiva.
The intellectuals,
while rejecting the Vedas as a source of knowledge and devotion, emphasized a
vigorous system of
discipline based on a
code of moral and spiritual behavior. They were also averse to the inequities
of the caste system, particularly to the high pretensions of the Brahmins. They were termed by the defenders of
tradition and orthodoxy as
"heterodox"
thinkers. They believed that life was
full of ills, and escape could be effected only through meditation on devotion
to the highest truth.
With the rise of the
heterodox movement, the mass of sacrifices and ceremonies which were inculcated
and supported by the
authority of the Vedas
began to fade away. A new and powerful
religious current of the quest of the Absolute originated. This idea
progressively acquired a predominant character of the Indian culture in future
generations.
Dr. K. M. Munshi has described its development
in the following words:
Long before the dawn
of the "Historical Period" a central idea was already becoming clear
from a mass of incoherent urges which went under the generic name of
dharma. Man was not a struggling worm
but a `self', of an essence with a supraphysical destiny which can only be
attained by a mastery over the misery which was man's lot on earth; this mastery
in its turn can only be achieved by integrating personality by self‑discipline
so as to raise the `self' above the flux of passing sense experience. The
discipline implied a double process, the relinquishment of the greed for life
and the broadening of the personal self into a universal self. The end of this discipline was variously
named:
self‑realization
(siddhi)
emancipation (mukti,
moksha)
freedom (nirvana)
enlightenment (jnana)
bliss (ananda)
In substance it was
absolute integration of human personality (kaivalya) freed from the limitations
of attachment and
fear. (3)
It was this experience
of different philosophical theories and interpretations that Mahavir
inherited. A stage was reached when the
problems of life and mysteries of the universe could be unraveled without
presupposing the existence of God or the revelation of His will. Vardhamana Mahavir and Gautama Buddha
provided the strong base for this intellectual make up of the country. Bhagwan Mahavir attempted to build a logical
system of intellectual pursuit and religious organization based on
individual experience,
by individual effort and for individual salvation.
1.4 ANTIQUITY OF JAINISM
Jainism contains the
traces of the earliest developments of philosophical thinking in the history of
mankind. It has been generally
recognized that Jain philosophy was sufficiently advanced before the tenth
century B.C. Earlier glimpses of
Jainism have, however, been lost in the antiquity, and the available sources of
information do not provide hope of
recovering them. According to the traditional Jain
literature, there have been twenty‑four Tirthankaras who reinstated the
religious order at various times. The
historical details of the first twenty‑two Tirthankars are not known,
although traditional account of them found in Jain literature is not altogether
insufficient to understand the line of Jain thought. According to traditional information, Jainism was propagated by
the
kshatriya (of warrior
class) princes. It repudiated,
explicitly or implicitly, the Brahminical claim that the Vedas were
infallible sources of
spiritual truth and the rituals prescribed therein, the means of salvation.
The lives and
teachings of the last two Tirthankars, Bhagwan Parshvanath and Bhagwan Mahavir,
are historical facts. From their times
onwards, we get an accurate outline of the growth of Jain religion and
philosophy. Historically, it is
recognized that long before the Christian Era, Jain metaphysical thought had
crystallized into a definite school of philosophy. It marked a considerable departure from the Vedic system and was,
therefore, looked upon as a heterodox system.
It was not merely a reform of the orthodox religion, but an altogether
separate religious system.
1. The Story of
Civilization: Part I. Our Oriental
Heritage by Will Durant, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1935, pp.
394‑396.
2. The essence of the
Vedas, which is the last portion of the Vedic literature.
3. The History and
Culture of the Indian People: The Age of Imperial Unity, Vol, II. R. C. Majumdar, General Editor;
Bharatiya Vidya
Bhayan, Bombay, 1968.
2.1 LIFE SKETCH OF
BHAGWAN MAHAVIR
Jain tradition speaks
of twenty‑four Tirthankars (ford‑makers across the stream of
existence), each of whom preached the doctrine to his own age. Of these, the first was Bhagwan
Rishabhadev who
preached the religion of nonviolence (ahimsa dharma) prior to the advent of the
Aryans in India. The last of these was
Bhagwan Mahavir, who lived from 599 B.C.
to 527 B.C. He revealed the doctrine of nonviolence as preached by
Bhagwan Rishabhadev. Gosala
Makkhaliputta, the head of the Ajivika sect, and Gautama Buddha, the founder of
Buddhism, were
Mahavir's
contemporaries.
The parents of Mahavir
belonged to the lay following of Bhagwan Parshvanath, the twenty‑third
Tirthankar, who was the son of King Ashvasen and Queen Vama of Varanasi. Parshvanath lived as a householder for
thirty years, then became an ascetic, and after performing penance for eighty‑four
days, attained
enlightenment
(omniscience). He lived for a full
hundred years and attained nirvana on Mount Sammedashikhar, some 250 years
before Mahavir.
Mahavir was born on
the thirteenth day of the bright fortnight of Chaitra, the first month of the
Indian calendar,
corresponding to March
30, 599 B.C., in a suburb of Vaishali called Kundgram, now known as
Basukund. His parents were
Siddhartha, a wealthy
nobleman, and Trishala, a sister of
Chetak, an eminent
Lichchhavi prince of Vaishali.
Mahavir's original name was Vardhamana.
His more popular name Mahavir was bestowed on him later. He is frequently referred to as "the
venerable ascetic Mahavir".
Mahavir became a monk
at the age of thirty. He practiced
severe asceticism (tapaschariya) throughout his life, abandoning his clothing
and wandering as a sky‑clad (Digambar) monk. His ways of meditation, days of austerities, and mode of behavior
furnish a beautiful
example for monks in religious life. His spiritual pursuit lasted for twelve
years. During the period of penance,
Mahavir met several monks to enrich his spiritual experience.
In 557 B.C., after
twelve years of austerities and meditation, on the tenth day of the bright half
of Vaishakha, the second month of the Indian calendar, Mahavir attained
omniscience (absolute knowledge).
Henceforth, he began his career as a path‑maker and a religious
teacher.
For the next thirty
years, Mahavir, the wandering ascetic, preached the doctrine of eternal
truth. He wandered for
eight months of the
year and spent four months of the rainy season (Chaturmas) in some large town
such as Champa, Vaishali, Rajagriha, Mithila and Shravasti. He attracted people from all walks of life, rich
and poor, kings and commoners, men and women, princes and priests, touchables
and untouchables. Many famous
contemporary kings and nobles thronged to listen to his spiritual discourses
and became his disciples.
On the fifteenth day
of the dark half of Kartik, the eighth month of the Indian calendar, in 527
B.C., at the age of
seventy‑two,
Tirthankar Mahavir attained Nirvana at a place called Majjhima Pava, the
present Pavapuri in the Patna district of the Indian state of Bihar. On the night of his salvation, the kings and
heads of the two clans, the Mallas and the
Lichchhavis, assembled
and celebrated the Festival of Lights (Deepavali) in his honor.
2.2 SOME SIGNIFICANT
POINTS
From what has been
stated above, certain significant points emerge about the life and teachings of
Bhagwan Mahavir.
(1) Jainism existed
before Mahavir and his teachings were based on those of his predecessors. Thus, unlike Buddha, Mahavir was more of a
reformer and propagator of an existing religious order than the founder of a
new faith. He followed the well‑
established creed of
his predecessor Tirthankar Parshvanath. However, Mahavir did reorganize the
philosophical tenets of Jainism to correspond to his times.
(2) Mahavir was a
brilliant personality. He occupies a
unique place among the greatest men of the world, He was an oasis in the arid
desert of confusion about the ultimate goal of human life. He was a philosopher as well as a
Tirthankar. As a philosopher, he made
his enquiries in order to solve the problem of life. As a Tirthankar, he gave a new revelation to the Dharma preached
by his predecessors. Mahavir adopted two steps to unravel reality:
One, he reconciled his
realization of the inner
world with the realm
of reason.
Two, he made enquiries
into the nature of life and of
existence through his
own personal observations, knowledge and experience.
(3) Mahavir was
undoubtedly a product of the best of Aryan culture. Besides the inherited philosophy of his predecessors, he was also
inspired by other Indian schools of thought.
The contemporary ideals of freedom from worldly misery and the thought
of transmigration profoundly affected his thinking. This led him to the goal of
integrated personality through the conquest of human weaknesses. The kindred forces which were united against
the Brahminical religious traditions, gave birth to the theory of renunciation
and self‑realization (Nivritti Marg).
Mahavir was at the forefront of this ferment at the intellectual,
spiritual and social levels. Further,
he
visualized relativism
(Syadvada) which means that isolated and opposite objects are bound in one
harmonious stream. Thus, scrupulous
exhaustiveness became the main characteristic of his approach.
The spiritual power
and moral grandeur of Mahavir's teachings impressed the masses. He made
religion simple and natural, free from elaborate ritual complexities. His
teachings reflected the popular impulse towards internal beauty and
harmony. Mahavir made Jainism the focal
point for the students of other schools of thoughts as well.
(4) Mahavir emphasized
the need of a comprehensive outlook ‑ the multiplicity of viewpoints
(Anekantavada). For him,
there was no question
of exaltation or domination of anyone's spiritual or ideological
contribution. In his view, a
dissenting opinion was
a natural human tendency. The wisdom,
however, lies in harmonizing the dissensions.
(5) Mahavir was quite
successful in eradicating from human intellect the conception of God as creator
or protector. He also denounced the
worship of God (and of gods and goddesses) as a means of salvation. He taught the idea of supremacy of human
life and stressed the importance of the positive. His message of nonviolence (ahimsa), truth (satya), non‑stealing
(achaurya), celibacy (brahmacharya) and non‑possessiveness (aparigraha)
is full of universal compassion. He
said that a living body is not merely an integration of limbs but it is the
abode of soul which potentially has infinite perception (anant darshan), infinite
knowledge (anant jnana), infinite power (anant virya) and infinite bliss (anant
sukha). Mahavir's message reflects
freedom and spiritual joy of soul.
(6) In matters of
spiritual enfranchisement, as envisioned by Mahavir, both men and women were on
an equal footing. The lure of renunciation
and liberation attracted women as well.
Many women followed Mahavir's path and renounced the world in search of
spiritual advancement.
(7) Like Buddhism,
Jainism also received royal patronage.
The king of Magadh, Shrenik, and Mahavir's maternal uncle, Chetak, among
others, were devoted to Mahavir.
However, the acceptance of Mahavir's teachings by the masses was the
most important factor.
In short, Mahavir
contributed to the process of unifying India and developing its collective
conscience by integrating Aryan and pre‑Aryan elements into a composite
culture and
spirituality.
In a few centuries
after Mahavir's nirvana, Jain religious order (Sangha) grew more and more
complex. There were schisms on some
minor points although they did not affect the original doctrines as preached by
the Tirthankar. Later generations saw
the introduction of ritualistic complexities which almost placed Mahavir and
other Tirthankars on the throne of deities.
Mahavir's indifference
to the worship of God was overshadowed by the role normally assigned to God in
other religions.
During the period of
his spiritual pursuit, Bhagwan Mahavir developed sympathy for suffering, the
idea of sanctity of all life, liberality and compassion towards all, and toleration
of all religious views. He organized
his spiritual order based on his own inner experiences. His philosophical ideas have a refreshingly
attractive message appealing to the common sense of man. Some tenets of his philosophy are outlined
below.
3.1 MULTIPLICITY OF viewpoints (ANEKANTAVADA)
AND
RELATIVISM (SYADAVADA)
The spring point of
the doctrine of multiplicity of viewpoints is that human knowledge cannot be
painted in terms of religious colors.
Knowledge knows no limitations and boundaries.
Religion and
philosophy are not limited to a particular country, period, or group. Different points of view are mere additions
to the human knowledge. When viewed
together, they present the picture of universal reality. Moreover, the knowledge of
reality cannot be
obtained through the senses. Whatever
we perceive through the senses is merely the appearance, it is not the world of
reality. If we want to reach reality,
we must withdraw from the world of senses into that of inner experience. It is
through the combination of proper perception (samyak darshan), proper knowledge
(samyak jnana) and proper conduct (samyak charitra) that we can attain self‑realization
and
understand the nature
of reality.
The fundamental
philosophical base of Jainism is therefore the comprehensive view of
reality. Jain philosophy points out
that the ultimate reality is complex in character and in order to comprehend
its nature, we must examine it from various points of view. Attending to a particular aspect of reality
to the
exclusion of other
aspects may serve some specific purpose under certain circumstances, but it is
only a partial vision of
reality. Over emphasis on a particular aspect of
reality not only distorts reality, but it also leads to dogmatic slavery,
mutual misunderstanding and conflict of interests. To recognize the nature of reality in all its completeness, one
has to review a variety of aspects before arriving at any conclusion.
The logical crux of
the aforesaid process is that there is always the possibility of many
standpoints in relation to the same object, The same object can have primarily
two
contradictory
propositions, and, therefore, can be described from one standpoint that it
exists (asti) and from another standpoint that it does not (nasti).
Every proposition is
both "is" and "is not" at the same time, and it is
certainly impossible to speak of the same from a single point of view. Two propositions, one affirmative (asti) and
the other negative are always asserted with reference to four aspects of a
thing:
Substance (dravya)
place (kshetra)
time (kaal)
form (bhava)
A thing is or exists
in respect of its own substance, but it does not exist in respect of other
substances. Take the case of a piece of
furniture. It may be made of ordinary
jungle wood and it may be so painted as to appear as rosewood. Now, the furniture is (exists as) jungle
wood, but is not (does not exist as) rosewood.
Similarly, a thing
exists in its own place and it does not, at the same time, exist in any other
place. While the cow is in her shed,
she is not in the field.
Again, a thing is in
its own time and is not in another time. Raja Rammohan Roy existed before
Gandhiji, but did not exist after Gandhiji.
Likewise, a thing,
while existing in its own form does not exist in another form. Water below freezing point exists as a
solid, but does not exist then as a liquid.
These four aspects
form the asti‑nasti‑vada.
This represents a pragmatic view in which an object may be affirmatively
described from one point of view of its own substance, place, time and form,
and negatively described from the standpoint of the
substance, place, time
and form of another thing. It is,
therefore, clear that
both the propositions, the affirmative and the negative, are true with
reference to the same object of reality.
In short, asti‑nasti‑vada
implies the prediction of
contradictory
attributes of asti ("is") and nasti ("is not") to the same
reality. It is interesting to compare
this with
Hegel's dialectic
principle which says that an idea or event (thesis) generates its opposite
(antithesis) which leads to a reconciliation of opposites (synthesis).
Jain thinkers have
further developed the logic into the theory of seven aspects (saptabhangi)
which postulates that as many as seven modes of prediction are possible in any
given case.
Therefore, no definite
or absolute statements can be made about any question. To the question "Is there
soul?" the Jain logic would admit
of seven answers. These are:
(1) is
(2) is not
(3) is and is not
(4) is inexpressible
(5) is and is
inexpressible
(6) is not and is
inexpressible
(7) is, is not and is
inexpressible
There is an aspect in
which there is soul, there is also an aspect in which it is not possible to
describe soul, and so on. This is equivalent to saying that knowledge is only
probabilistic. The theory is also called relativism
(syadavada, the doctrine of "may be").
The doctrines of
multiplicity of viewpoints and relativism, as postulated by Jains, have a
unique importance today. The
present‑day
world is too circumscribed and interdependent as never before in the history of
mankind. In order to achieve the
objectives world peace, harmonious individuality and integrated personality of
the individual, the contributions of different sages, faiths, philosophers and
thinkers of different nations and periods must not only be fully recognized,
but should also be given their proper place.
This will bring out a common outlook based on justice and equality. The great philosopher statesman, late Maulana
Abul Kalam Azad, has rightly observed that:
"Increasing
control over the forces of nature has brought men of different regions nearer
one another. Different cultures have,
thus, been brought into close proximity.
Closer brought into one common pool of human knowledge. They also facilitate the task of philosophy
in affecting a reconciliation between the different principles underlying the
outlook of different
civilizations. The evolution of a world philosophy has
become today a matter not only of theoretical interest, but of great practical
urgency."(4)
Obviously, the
dogmatism emphasizing only the point of view of one religion, philosophy,
nation, period or class of people will not satisfy modern, intelligent
men. Multiplicity of viewpoints
(anekantavada) is an approach to solve the problems of life from a truly
integrated point of view. It provides a
synoptic view to bring together in one compass the knowledge attained by
different peoples at different times.
Relativism (syadavada) is the first step towards human happiness,
peaceful prosperity, world civility, coexistence and cooperative universality
in this war‑torn, fearful and tense situation of the world today.
3.2 THE CONCEPT OF
ENTITY (DRAVYA)
Viewed in terms of the
comprehensive character of reality, every object in nature has three aspects:
Origination (utpada)
destruction (vyaya)
permanence (dhrauvya)
A faithful and natural
description of reality takes into
consideration the
three aspects:
Permanence in the
midst of change
identity in the midst
of diversity
unity in the midst of
multiplicity
For example, a plant
begins its life, grows and then dies. However, the plant maintains its identity
throughout its process of growth.
The complex nature of
reality as a permanence in the midst of origination and destruction, has been
described by Jain thinkers by the concept of entity (dravya). An entity is defined to have existence
(sat), which in turn implies origination, destruction and permanence. An entity possesses its own characteristic
qualities or attributes (gunas) and it assumes a variety of modes,
modifications or forms (paryayas).
Attributes and modes are inseparable from an entity.
In other words, an
entity apart from its attributes and
attributes apart from
their entity are mere abstractions.
The modifications that
an entity undergoes refer to the various shapes and forms into which a
substance is transformed either naturally or artificially. A living being, through the process of
growth, undergoes various changes such as childhood, youth and old age. These changes are the natural modifications
of the living being. Modifications can
also be affected artificially. For example, clay is molded by the potter into
various shapes, and gold is made by a goldsmith into various ornaments. While undergoing various modifications,
either natural or artificial, the basic substance remains the same. The intrinsic attributes remain unchanged
and are permanent, while the forms change and are transient.
An entity (substance)
is permanent (nitya) considering its attributes, and it is transient (anitya)
from the standpoint of its forms (modifications). The point of view of the attributes is known as substantial
standpoint (dravyarthik naya) and the point of view of the modes (forms) is
called modal standpoint (paryayarthik naya).
3.3 STRUCTURAL VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE
The world of reality
consists of two classes of objects:
Conscious (chetan)
objects and non‑conscious (achetan) objects. These are otherwise called
the living (jivas) and nonliving (ajivas).
(a) Nonliving:
The nonliving or non‑conscious
is the universe minus the living or conscious.
It is not exactly equivalent to matter, for, besides matter, it includes
such entities as space and time. There are five nonliving entities. The most important of these is matter
(including energy) which, in Jainism, is called
pudgala. Material objects are constituted of atoms
(paramanus). The atoms of different elements make up physical objects which are
called aggregates (skandhas in Jainism).
The whole physical world is itself a super aggregate
(mahaskanddha). Material objects can be
perceived by the senses (indriyas) and have the sensory qualities (touch,
taste, smell and color) as their attributes.
The second nonliving
entity is space (akash). It accommodates
other entities of the universe. The
portion of space that contains other substances is called physical space
(Lokakash), and beyond it there is empty space (alokakash) which is just a
void.
The third and fourth
nonliving entities are medium of motion (dharma) and medium of rest
(adharma)(5). These two pervade the
whole of lokakash. The medium of motion
supports the motion of the living and nonliving objects while the medium of
rest keeps them steady and in equilibrium.
Time (kaal) is the
fifth entity of the universe. It is
made up of atomic moments. Time is real
and it cannot be dismissed as illusory.
Time maintains the reality of change and motion in physical realm, and
growth and development in the living world.
The space, medium of
motion, medium of rest, time and the souls (described below) do not possess
sensory qualities. Thus they cannot be
perceived by senses. They can only be
postulated. They make the physical world what it is.
(b) Conscious or
Living Beings:
A living being is a
conscious entity. It is the most
important aspect of reality. The
conscious being (jiva) is also called soul.
It knows and feels. It acts and
is acted upon. It suffers by its
association with matter and is born again and again, only to suffer. There is a plurality of souls in the
universe. Each soul is subject to the
same laws of karma and rebirth. The
highest endeavor of the soul is to free itself from this bondage of karma and
attain salvation.
Souls are divided into
two major groups: Liberated (mukta)
souls and worldly (samsari) souls.
Worldly souls are in the bondage of karma and are subject to birth,
growth, old age and death which are characteristic of this world.
The classification of
the living beings (worldly souls) is based on the number of sense organs
(indriyas) present in the living beings.
The lowest of these are the one‑sensed (ekendriya) living beings
which are immobile (sthavar). They are
endowed with only one sense, that of touch (sparsh). Plants and trees belong to this class of living beings. There are also other microscopic single‑sensed
organisms (sukshma ekendriya jivas) which are subtle and invisible to the naked
eye. These
microscopic organisms
are found in earth, water, air, etc.
The next higher living
beings are mobile (trasa). These are:
two‑sensed
(dwindriya) having the senses of touch and taste
three‑sensed
(trindriya) having the senses of touch, taste and smell
four‑sensed
(chaturindriya) possessing the senses of touch, taste, smell and sight
five‑sensed
(panchendriya), having the senses of touch,
taste, smell, sight
and hearing
All higher animais
belong to the class of five‑sensed beings. Almost all five‑sensed
living beings are endowed with a mind (manas), the faculty of thinking. Man is a five‑sensed living being with
a mind. Besides human beings, according
to Jainism, there are heavenly beings (devas) and beings living in hell
(narak).
The five nonliving
entities together with the living beings are aspects of reality in Jainism.
3.4 KARMA THEORY
Bhagwan Mahavir
visualized that the world is full of misery and sorrows, and, therefore, he
concluded that the fundamental object of religion should be to help the worldly
souls cross the river of sorrows and obtain deliverance from the cycles of
births and deaths. The root cause of
the soul's worldly career is its own actions which associate it with different
types of external material particles (karma).
There are the following eight types of karma:
1. The perception‑obscuring
(darshanavarni) karma
2. The knowledge‑obscuring (jnanavarni)
karma
3. The feeling‑producing (vedaniya) karma
4. The deluding (mohaniya) karma
5. The life‑span‑determining (aayu)
karma
6. The physique‑determining (naam) karma
7. The status‑determining (gorta) karma
8. The obstructing (antaraya) karma
All living beings,
whether human or sub‑human, are subject to the influence of these eight
types of karma.
According to another
classification, karma are of two kinds:
physical (dravya)
karma which are material particles and
abstract (bhava) karma
which are impure mental dispositions.
The physical karmic
particles constitute the karmic body
associated with the
soul. Around this subtle body, the
gross material body is built through nutrition from the environment.
It is the abstract
karma (the feelings and emotions) which is responsible for attracting material
karmic particles to the soul. The
physical karma in its turn influences the
psychological
disposition. Thus a psycho‑physical
cycle is maintained between the physical karma and abstract karma.
One causes changes in
the other although there is no direct interaction between the two. Material changes must be
attributed to material
antecedent, and similarly, psychological changes must be attributed to
antecedent psychological
conditions. The attempt to get rid of the association
with matter (karma) entails avoiding impure psychological disposition in its
own consciousness. A course of
regulating the combined activity of body, speech and mind (yoga) and penance
(tapa) has been prescribed for the purpose.
Emancipation from this
mundane existence can be effected only by the individual self. Salvation can be achieved through proper
conduct and austerities rather than sacrifices, rituals and prayers to
God. Although complete renunciation of
the world and severe austerities which can be practiced only by a homeless
monk, are necessary for elimination of the cycle of birth and death, the life
of a layman (grishastha) is also regarded as an important preparatory stage in
the process of deliverance. Thus
varying degrees of moral and spiritual code of conduct have been prescribed for
laymen (shravakas) and for monks (sadhus) as part of the disciplinary
regulations. Asceticism and abstentions
are essential for attaining freedom from the bondage of karma.
3.5 THEORY OF HUMAN
EXCELLENCE
By practicing yoga and
penance (tapa), every soul can climb, step by step, to different stages of perfection,
becoming purer and purer at every stage until it reaches spiritual glory from
which there is no return. Through the
process of yoga and penance, the soul can get rid of the worldly environment
and ultimately attain its pristine state.
The spiritual salvation thus achieved shines forth with all its glory
just like the sun when the obstructive clouds disperse and disappear.
The stage of spiritual
perfection is, no doubt, isolated, but is associated with the infinite foursome
(Anant Chatushtaya), namely, infinite perception, infinite knowledge, infinite
power and infinite bliss, which are the intrinsic characteristics of the
perfect soul. Each individual is the
architect of his own spiritual destiny.
Man's emancipation from suffering does not depend upon the mercy of any
superhuman authority. By living an
austere life of purity and virtue, one can escape the ills of worldly life and
can ultimately achieve salvation.
It is clear from what
has been stated above that man is placed on the highest pedestal among the
souls in bondage because it is only man who is capable of attaining the
ultimate spiritual goal. He is the only
being in this world who is proximate to salvation. There is no Supreme being to liberate the worldly beings. Even the heavenly beings cannot directly
attain
liberation. They must be reborn as humans before they
can hope to achieve salvation. This is
because only man can perform yoga and penance necessary for breaking up all the
shackles of
bondage. Every soul possesses the potential of
becoming
emancipated and there
is a whole galaxy of deified men who have attained greatness by their complete
spiritual purification.
3.6 THEORY OF
KNOWLEDGE
Jain thinkers have
described the following five kinds of
knowledge:
Sensory cognition
(mati jnana)
Literal knowledge
(shrut jnana)
Clairvoyance (avadhi
jnana)
Telepathy
(manahparyaya jnana)
Omniscience (keval
jnana) or absolute knowledge
As distinguished from
other systems which consider sense
perception as direct
knowledge, Jains define direct knowledge as the perception by the soul without
any intermediary.
Accordingly, the first
two kinds of knowledge are considered as indirect (paroksha) by Jain thinkers
since they are acquired through sense organs or books. The last three kinds of
knowledge are
immediate (pratyaksha) or direct knowledge.
Clairvoyance enables a
person to have visions of objects and events in distant places or in distant
times. This capacity may be acquired
through psychological development.
Telepathy is the
ability to know the ideas and thoughts of others. It is the insight to the psychological events taking place in
others' minds. It is said to be
acquired through rigorous discipline and concentration.
The absolute knowledge
or omniscience is attained by complete self‑realization and by getting
rid of perception‑obscuring, knowledge‑obscuring, deluding and
obstructing karmas.
Omniscience is
coextensive with reality. There is no
difference of time such as past, present and future in the case of
omniscience since it
is able to comprehend reality in its
completeness.
According to Jain
thinkers, the object of knowledge is not a creation of mind, rather the
knowledge and the object of
knowledge are distinct
from each other. Jains maintain the
view that the physical object in the external world is independent of knowledge
and cannot be created or changed by the knowing mind. The object of knowledge
may also be psychological facts.(6)
3.7 JAIN ETHICS ‑
PATH TO SALVATION (MOKSHA MARG)
The keynote of Jainism
rings with
religious tolerance
ethical purity
spiritual contentment
harmony between self
and one's environment
Its central theme is
not based on a theoretical science.
Rather, it considers
religion as a science of ethical practice. It conceives the human body not as a
toy‑machine to play with, but as a chariot on which the soul rides
towards salvation. In the scheme of
Jain system, life on earth is not merely
sorrowful. It is on probation to conduct itself to
successively higher and higher forms of existence. The conduct of the
present life should be
aimed at the attainment of a permanent state of being from which there is no
return. Every soul can attain godhood,
i.e., supreme spiritual individuality by
realizing its
intrinsic purity and perfection.
In his conduct, an
individual can be guided by the examples of five benevolent personalities
(panch parameshthi). These are:
Supreme human beings
(arahantas)
pure souls (siddhas)
master teachers
(acharyas)
scholarly monks
(upadhyayas)
ascetics (sadhus)
Aranantas are persons
who have destroyed four types of karmas, mentioned above, and have attained
omniscience.
Siddhas are souls that
are completely free from karmic bondage and have attained salvation.
The first step in the
process of self‑realization is to discard superstitious beliefs and to
adopt a rational and judicious attitude in life. Jainism lays down a definitive course of practical moral
discipline, contemplation of the highest truth and reorientation of life in
light of these for attaining
ultimate reality.
In common with other
Indian systems, it prescribes a path to salvation (moksha marg), which consists
of the three jewels (ratnatraya) of Jainism:
proper perception
(samyak darshan)
proper knowledge
(samyak jnana)
proper conduct (samyak
charitya)
The three jewels are,
obviously, necessary for a successful life.
This threefold discipline helps us realize our own
intrinsic purity. The three jewels must be cultivated
collectively to ensure
salvation. Individually, they are
incomplete and
insufficient because they are mutually dependent. In isolation, perception or
knowledge or conduct causes
conflicts or tensions
and vitiates the environment.
Collectively. the three jewels produce harmony,
contentment and blissfulness with the progressive march of the soul to the
higher planes.
Proper perception
creates awareness of reality, proper knowledge impels the person to action and
proper conduct leads him to the attainment of the desired objective.
Proper conducts
entails the following five vows:
Nonviolence (ahimsa)
Truth (satya)
Non‑stealing
(achaurya)
Abstention from
sensuality (brahmacharya)
Nonpossessiveness
(aparigraha)
Ahimsa is based on
love and kindness for all living beings.
It has been repeatedly pointed out in Jain scriptures that even the
thought of evil is as bad as action resulting in injury.
Nonviolence of Jainism
is not a negative virtue. It is based
upon the positive quality of universal love which is the result of a
recognition of kinship among all living beings. One who is actuated by this ideal cannot be indifferent to the
suffering of others.
Satya implies being
not only truthful but also pleasant and wholesome.
Achaurya consists in
not taking others' property without his consent, or by unjust or immoral
methods.
Brahmacharya means
abstaining from sexual indulgence.
Aparigraha means
nonpossessiveness of property and giving up greed.
The five vows are
observed with voluntary limitations by the householders (anuvratis) and
absolutely by the homeless ascetics (mahavratis).
Jain ethical code does
not prescribe duties according to caste or other social inequalities. All men and women are equal in birth and
everyone is entitled to be either a householder or an ascetic according to his
or her choice. The observance of the
ethical code by an individual does not only develop his
spirituality, but also
helps in contributing to social justice, economic equality, humanization of
culture and civilization, human happiness, class harmony as against class
conflict, and growth of an egalitarian society.
Jain religion lays
special emphasis on nonviolence and truth. In fact, these two are the principal
religious ideas. The spiritual value of
Jain code of conduct has been upheld
throughout Jain
literature. Victory over suffering,
calm
attitude towards cruelty
and persecution, patience towards opponents are some of the main
characteristics of Jain ascetics, The Jain code of conduct presupposes an
extraordinary courage and peace of mind which originates only from spiritual
integrity and strength.
"It is this
strength of the spiritual power of the self that was recognized by Gandhiji in
his political struggle against odds. Both in South Africa and in India he
successfully made use of this spiritual weapon against the political opponents
who were equipped with ordinary weapons of destruction and suppression. Thus
Gandhiji raised ahimsa and satya to universal importance. His socio‑political
experiments proved beyond doubt the value of this spiritual power. Equipped with this weapon of ahimsa and
satyagraha (7) one can overcome any amount of opposition
depending upon brutal
force. While he was alive Gandhi
dreamed of offering this spiritual weapon to the world at large‑‑a
world disturbed by mutual suspicion, always ready for warfare. He thought that this spiritual ideal would
be able to serve as a cure for the various ills that afflicted the world at
large. Let us hope that this spirit will ultimately prevail and convert the
world of warring classes and nations into a world of peace and harmony where
all can live in happiness, without destruction of race, religion and
nationality," (8)
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑
4. History of
Philosophy: Eastern and Western, Vol. I; pp 26‑27; Edited by S.
Radhakrishnan, George Allen & Unwin Ltd.,
London, 1952.
5. In this context,
the Sanskrit words, dharma and adharma do not have their usual meanings.
6. The knowledge
related to psychological facts is practically the relation between the thought
process and physical events which are identical in nature with the process of
knowing. Even here the facts in consciousness revealed by knowledge are
considered independent of the process of knowing,
otherwise the
knowledge so obtained will become illusory and unreal. Knowledge is self‑luminous inasmuch as
it reveals itself just as it illuminates the external objects.
7. Satyagraha means
peaceful non‑cooperation.
8. A. Chakravarti,
Jain Philosophy; History of Philosophy, op. cit. p. 151.
4.1 THE ONTOLOGICAL VIEW
The ontological view
of Jains is concerned primarily with the life and existence rather than the
creation of the universe and the conception of God. Jainism, however, cannot be regarded as agnosticism or metaphysical
nihilism. It is to the credit of Jain
thinkers that they constructed a philosophy and theory of reality out of the
negative approach of those who were
protesting against the
dogmatism of the Vedas.
Jainism does not deny
reality. Jain philosophers adopted a
middle course by propounding a theory that the world consisted of two eternal,
uncreated, coexisting but independent categories of substances: The conscious (jiva) and the unconscious
(ajiva). They developed the logic that the world is
not
altogether unknowable;
only one should not be absolutely certain about one's assertions. Jain philosophers said that moral and
religious values must be brought out of dogmatic slavery.
Wisdom must be proved
by reason which, in turn, depends on the experiences of self and of
others. The human experience based on
reason constitutes the data for the discovery of reality.
4.2 CONCEPT OF GODHOOD
Professor Surendranath
Dasgupta, the famous philosopher‑
historian, has
described the concept of Godhood as follows:
"The true God is
not the God as the architect of the universe, nor the God who tides over our
economic difficulties or panders to our vanity by fulfilling our wishes, but it
is the God who emerges within and through our value‑sense, pulling us up
and through the emergent ideals and with whom I may feel myself to be united in
the deepest bonds of love. The
dominance of value in all its forms presupposes love, for it is the love for
the ideal that leads us to forget our biological encumbrances. Love is to be distinguished from passion by
the fact that while the latter is initiated biologically, the former is
initiated from a devotedness to the ideal.
When a consummating love of this description is generated, man is raised
to Godhood and God to man." (9)
This corresponds to
the Jain approach to Godhood. In
Jainism, God is the supreme manifestation of human excellence.
4.3 PESSIMISM vs. OPTIMISM
Jainism is often
considered to have a prevailing note of
pessimism about
life. This is not true. The tone of
hopefulness pervades
all aspects of Jain philosophy.
"We hear much indeed of philosophy", observes Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, "as a call to
transcend the narrowness of egoism and identify
ourselves with something
greater than ourselves as the way of salvation, but this is not in order to
escape from the
ineradicable evil of
existence but in order to find ourselves in things that give to existence its
only true value." For "in the
man who transcends his narrow self and merges it in the life of the whole
philosophy as truth, religion as devotion and morality as goodness
meet." This is similar to the Jain
view of life described earlier.
4.4 THE PROBLEM OF
HUMAN PEACE
We are all pilgrims of
peace. So far, we have not succeeded in
our quest. No doubt we have discovered
science and science has given us new powers but it has not brought peace. The time has now come when philosophy and
religion should turn their
attention to the
problem of peace on earth. Jainism, owing to its comprehensive and
accommodative nature, is well‑equipped to solve the problem of world
peace. Jainism preaches multiplicity of
viewpoints (anekantavada) which weans us from too
exclusive occupations
and dogmatic suppositions. The gigantic
experiments going on throughout the world need a fuller
understanding of the
minds of the leaders of thought,
irrespective of their,
social outlook, political beliefs,
religious creed or
nationality. With the complexity and vastness of the subject matter, the
attainment of unanimity remains only an ideal.
Great thinkers have made varied attempts to reach this ideal. It is essential that people should look at
things from as many viewpoints as possible and reach an acceptable solution to
problems.
4.5 TRUTH AND
NONVIOLENCE
Jain ethical code is
based on two main concepts: Nonviolence
(ahimsa) and truth (satya). These are
important not only for individual uplift but also for social welfare and prosperity.
All the twenty‑four Tirthankars preached nonviolence and truth for
spiritual advancement as against sacrificial rituals. Nonviolence is based on
sanctity of life and love for all living beings. Truth purifies the mind.
Speaking pleasant and wholesome truth is nobler than silence.
In modern times,
Mahatma Gandhi has demonstrated the value of these ideals. "I am being led to my religion",
he says "through truth and nonviolence, i.e., love in the broadest
sense.... Denial of God we have known.
Denial of truth we have not known. The most ignorant among mankind have
some truth in them. We are all sparks
of truth. The sum total of these sparks
is
indescribable, as‑yet‑unknown‑truth
which is God. I am being daily led
nearer to it by constant prayer."
...He further says, "To be sure to such religion, one has to lose
oneself in continuous and continuing service of all life. Realization of truth is impossible without a
complete merging of oneself in, and in identification with, this limitless
ocean of life.
Hence, for me, there
is no escape from social service, there is no happiness on earth beyond or
apart from it. Social service here must
be taken to include every department of life.
In this scheme, there is nothing low, nothing high, all is one, though
we seem to be many." (10)
4.6 JAlNISM AS APPLIED
INTELLIGENCE
Jainism is neither the
satisfaction of intellectual curiosity (nishchaya) nor the practical pragmatism
(vyavhara) alone. It is a combination of both.
Both are essential for an integrated growth of man. Intellect is significant as a means to
better practical moral adjustment.
However, truth cannot be attained by reason alone without practical
moral discipline of the
passions and
prejudices which warp human judgement.
In short, Jainism is applied intelligence rather than pure science. It is a training in modesty rather than
twisting the facts for a supposed explanation.
Jainism influences life with deepest insight, widest farsight, synthetic
disinterestedness (vitaraga) and penetrating comprehensiveness in man's journey
towards salvation‑‑the state of soul having infinite perception,
infinite knowledge,
infinite bliss and infinite strength.
By developing insight,
man acquires the quality of
distinguishing between
the real and the unreal, and of grasping of the ultimate nature of things. By developing farsight, man acquires the
quality of distinguishing the eternal values from transitory ones and lives his
own life for accomplishing the eternal values.
The quality of disinterestedness relieves a person from one‑sided
dependence. A comprehensive view helps
man penetrate beneath the superficial and limited sphere, and leads him to the
nature of reality.
It is primarily
because of these features that Jainism has maintained its identity and has
remained less hostile and more accommodative to fellow religious communities
than some other heterodox systems.
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑
9. Philosophy of Dependent Emergence in Contemporary Indian Philosophy, edited
by S. Radhakrishnan and J. H. Muirhead. p. 285. George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London, 1958.
10. Contemporary
Indian Philosophy; op. cit. p. 21.
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