Chapter
xiv
jainism in
mdiaeval india
(1300-1800)
Prologue
English Translation by S.M. Pahedia
It is essential to weigh
the contemporary social and political background while considering the
conditions and thriving of Jainism in mediaeval India. During this period, Indian
society was traditionally divided into Hindu and Jain religion. Buddhism had
well-nigh disappeared from Indian scenario. The Indian socio-cultural
infrastructure faced sufficient change owing to the influence of Islam that
infiltrated into India through the medium of the Arab, the Turk, the Mughal and
the Afghan attacks. Though the new entrants too were by and large divided into Sunni,
Shiya and Sufi sects, they were all bound firmly to Islam. Ofcourse,
Islam brought in new life-values and life-styles in Indian life owing to which
the inevitability for reconsidering the shape of social structure and
traditional-philosophico facets was felt, perhaps very badly. And this very
condition caused rise of some new sects like Bhakti, Saint and Sikh invigorated
primarily by the Vedantist, Ramanuja, Madhav, Nimbark, Ramanand Chaitanya,
Vallabha etc. With this cultural background, centuries old Digambara and
Shavetambara amnay (tradition) was telling its own separate tale. Fore
more than one reason, these branches were further divided into sects,
sub-sects, ganas, gachchas, anvayas, sanghas &
C. as time rolled by. Same way, Bhattaraka, Chaityavasi, Taranpanth,
Sthanakvasi practices came into view introducing their own religious
formalities, life-fashions, code of conduct, and to some extent the
philosophical views. Such being the condition, Jainism of medioeval India
witnessed its wide extension. At the same time, it met with certain difficulty
also. Jain population was reduced in comparison to the total population. The
salience of the Jain community and the writing class people of this time has
been that of incessant writing of scriptures, treatises, memoirs, panegyrics,
and mostly dated inscriptions on the images and walls of the temples. As a
result of this, the historians, the sociologists, the researches of religion
and philosophy got an opportunity to study the original sources systematically
and scientifically. The Jain society believing in the doctrine of aparigraha
(non-accumulation) remained firm to their faith all through the long journey of
the history of Jainism. and, its, gurus, sadhus (Monks in
general) acharyas (spiritual leaders),
Pandits, ganis, (Monks of a few years standing) and their enthusiastic
followers providing religious leadership went on constructing temples, viharas,
upashrayas (monasteries) etc. in different architectural styles, installing
images of the Tirthankaras and their so-called presiding deities (Sashan,
Devi-Devata) like Lokapalas uardians of the cardinal points of the
universe) Yakashas-Yakshis (Vegetation spirits), Padmavati, Ambika,
Dikpalas (guardians of the directions), Chakreshvari, and Kshetrapalas like
Manabhadra and Manibhadra escorting pilgrimages with grandeur and attraction,
and celebrating festivals and festivities befitting the occasion. Though there
was an intolerant and non-liberal foreign rule in contemporary India, the
Jain-world did not allow any exception to creep in even under such a situation.
Even then, it will have to be accepted that the force and energy of Jain
religion was waning; it remained effective in only some parts of north, west
central and south India, as will be discussed later on.
It will be in the
fitness of things, here, to discuss the contemporary political condition. This
time, a decisive turn came in Indian history in 1206. The Delhi Sultanate,
established this year, gradually emerged as a central power. This happened at
the cost of the disintegrating Rajput powers of north India. During the Khilji
period, the different dynasties ruling across the Narmada to the far South had
to witness decline. During, the Tughlaq period, the Delhi Sultanate marched
towards weakness, uncertainty and disintegration. After the decline of the Tughlaq
empire, there emerged independent Muslim rule in Jaunpur, Bihar, Bengal,
Gujarat and Malwa. But, inspite of the unfavourable circumstances, the
contemporary Rajput powers of west India facing barbarism and vandalism of the
Muslim attackers continued to keep up their cultural existence. This very time,
there were to main powers in India on the political scene- (1) Muslim empire of
Bahamani, and (2) Hindu empire of Vijayanagar. Though Bahamani empire had
disintegrated in the 16th century, its concerted power could, however, won
success in defeating and destroying Vijayanagar empire. Babar's attack in 1526
established Mughal empire in India, and Delhi and Agra became its headquarters.
After Babar and his son Humayun, main Mughals Akbar (Padshah in Jain
literature), Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb were respectively enthroned on
the Mughal throne. After Auragzeb, the Mughal empire gradually inclined towards
disintegration and decline. Thereat, opportunity occurred for witnessing later
Mughal sources. Taking advantage of the situation, many provincial satrapas
(rulers) proclaimed themselves independent the ultimate consequence of which
was the termination of the Mughal sovereignty and heralding of the British
sovereignty.
This general survey of
the mediaeval Indian history is more or less connected with the development and
existence of different Jain sects and creeds. To be more explicit, it will be
proper here to discuss in detail the different Jain sects and the relations of
their leaders with different dynasties.
Jainism
Vis-a-Vis or V/S Delhi Sultanate
Barring, the Lodi
dynasty, all rulers of Delhi were of Turk origin. They were all stauch
followers of Islam, and intolerant towards the Hindus and the Jains. According
to them, these Indians were Kafirs. For their trivial military, religious and
political interest, they did not hesitate even a mite to shed blood of the
non-Muslims and plunder their property. They were totally iconoclasts. It was a
part of their religious activities to destroy temples, idols and deprive
property of the Jain and the Hindu temples and the businessmen. Qua rulers,
these foreigners did not provide patronage to Jain and other religions and
their sacred places. The rigid religious injunctions given by their staunch ulemas
were the last word to them. Their sole interest was to convert Indians to
Islam, and to impose extra and heavy taxes on those who did not accept their
religion, and to suppress them a hundred other ways.
Even under such
incongenial conditions the Jains were not disappointed. By virtue of their
word-softness and skill, property, submissive and docile conduct, and
intellectual ability, they alleviated and pacified intolerance and selfishness
of these rulers to some extent.
There are proofs to
prove the unbroken and continuous existence of Jainism during Sultanate India.
During the reign of Shahabuddin
Muhammed Ghori, Jainacharya Basantkirti was wielding his influence and
filling in an importantly effective role. Delhi has been called Yoginipur in
contemporary Jain literature. Here then lived many wealthy Jain families most
of whom were the members of the Agrawal caste. It is because of this that the
transcription of 'Panchastikaya' could be possible during the reign of even
fanatic Balban. Similarly, during the intolerant rule of Alauddin Khilji,
Thakkur Pandit wrote 'Yashodharcharit' at the instance of Bisal Sahu. Exactly
at the same time, a Digambar acharya Madhavasena, being invited by
purandas, the city-seth, not only impressed the Sultan by his
personality and learning, but also established the seat (Patta) of the
Mathur Gachcha of the Kashtha sangha in the village Kashtha near Delhi.
The Nandi sangha of Digambar amnay (tradition) also did not lag
behind. One acharya Prabhachandra of that sangha also came to
Delhi and succeeded in establishing his seat ove there. It is no less
surprising that Alauddin Khilji paid respect to Digambar Muni
Shrutviraswami, Shevatambar Suri Jinachandra, and Yati
Ramachandra.
During the reign of
Alauddin's son and successor Kutubuddin Mubarakshan (1316-20), one Jinachandra
(the third) acharya of the Khartar gachcha came to Delhi in 1318,
and succeeded in receiving firman (order or decree) to perform journey
to various Jain tirthas. One of his followers amongst Jain shravakas
(lay votaries) was Thakkur Pheru who was the royal president of the mint and
was an established and a learned author of books on mineral ossaying.
Comparatively the impact
of the Jains on Delhi rulers during the Tughlaq period was more. After the
demise of Jinachandra, his able successor Jinakushal seated on the seat (patta).
Owing to the influence of Thakkur Pheru, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq honoured him and
issued him a firman for journey to Gujarat tirthas. Completing
the journey of these tirthas, Jinakushal reached Sindhu-desh (governed
by a Muslim ruler) where he breathed his last in 1332 at Devarajpur. His seat
was held by Jinapadma Süri who equally proved influential.
During the reign of
Ghiyasuddin, two Pragvat Jains-Sura and Vira came to Delhi and were
appointed to the high posts. Similary, the Sultan issued a firman
allowing a Shrimal shravaka Gajapati to carry-out his pilgrimages.
Son and successor of
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was Muhammad Tughlaq who remained the Sultan of Delhi from
1325 to 1351. The mentionable names of the Jain shreshthis and the
members of their family who got transcribed Jain scriptures during this period
are - Sahu Badhu, Sahu Mahipala and
Sahu Sagia. Since Muhmmed Tughlaq had kept himself free from the clutches of
the ulemas, his religious policy was comparatively tolerant. Therefore, acharya
Bhattaraka Durlabhsena of the Kashtha sangha and Bhattaraka of the Nandi
sangha, Ratnakirti and his disciple Prabhachandra, and Jinaprabha suri,
the author of the 'Vividha Tirtha kalpa' could get honour and regard in Delhi.
Jinadeva suri, Yati Mahendra suri etc. too received no less regard.
Feroz Tughlaq
(1351-1388) proved a fanatic. Yet Digambar Muni Bhattaraka
Prabhachandra, poet Ratnashekhar Suri, Rekha Pandit, specialist in Ayurveda,
etc. received honour at his hands. Rekha Pandit got respect even form Malwa
Sultan Ghiyasuddin and Afghan Suri rulers.
After the fall of the
Tughlaqs, the Sayyid dynasty began to rule over Delhi. Their reign extended
from 1414 to 1450. Once again, Agrawal shrshthis came into prominence in
Delhi. Amongst them, Hemraj and Dieuchandra (Diwuta) and Thilha of Bayana
(Shripatha Nagar) and some other sahus deserve mention. They had the
discipleship of the Bhattarakas Yashahkirti and Gunakirti of the Kashtha sangha.
Under favourable conditions, they could construct a chaitya and did sanghayatras
successfully. As per their wishes and those of their kith and Kin, 'Pandava
Purana', Harivansha Purana' were composed in Delhi. The great poet Raidhu too
received honour in Delhi this time.
After the Sayyids, the
Lodi dynasty came to power in Delhi. These Afghan rulers had very cordial
relations with the Jains. Gada sav, the father of Taran Swami was offered a
high post by Bahiol Lodi. At the time of Sikander Lodi, a Jain shravaka
Chowdhari Devaraj was the chief trader of Delhi. The Sultan had honoured his guru
Vishalkirti. Another Agrawal shravaka Sadharan was, really,
extraordinary in intellect and wisdom. By the permission of the Sultan, he had
performed many tirtha-yatras (journeys to holy places) in the capacity
of a leader of the sangha. Chowdhari Todarmal of Jaiswal caste was a
reputed businessman of Delhi. At the instance of Jain shreshthis a Jain
poet named Pandit Manikyaraj wrote 'Amar Muni Charitra', and Yayakumar Charitra'
during the Lodi period.
Gada sav was one of the
officers of the Lodis. Originally, he was from Bundelkhand. He was a
revolutionary Jain thinker, who opposed idol-worship and all other forms of
worship in the fashion of Lonka Shah. Forhim. this was all a piece of sheer
ostentation, and a mere false ostentaion of religion. His teaching in this
regard had a wide impact on people. As such a large number of people became his
followers. A separate community of such people came into existence in the name
of Sammaiya community. This came to be known as Taranpanth.
Leaving aside Muhammed
Tughlaq as an exception, almost all Delhi-Sultans were staunch sunnis,
and intolerant from religious point of view. They left no stone unturned in
destroying the Hindu and the Jain temples and images. Even then, Indian society
kept up its existence. Jain followers proved more zealous. And, even under
adverse circumstances also, they continued to receive honour for their acharyas
from the ruling class. They continued to install small images in chaityalayas
(home-temples), and get firmans from the rulers for pilgrimages of the sanghapatis
and the pilgrims.
Thus, they proved that
as and when the Indian society was suppressed and oppressed the cultural
awakening became more energetic and vigorous.
The
Sultanate Of Gujarat And Malwa
Situated on the western
coast of India, Gujarat has been an important centre of Jainism from the
ancient times. In the first decades of the 13th century Gujarat had an
opportunity to have within its told Jain shreshthis, builders, patrons
and leaders of the sangha likeVastupal and Tejpal. Many sects and gachchas
continued to prosper in this belt which was rich because of its toreign trade.
Inspite of the rivalry, Jain religion continued to march on to the path of
progress, to construct and reconstruct religious sites (dharma sthalas)
temples, to build images, to create literature (of different sects), and to get
interest in the transcription of a number of Jain scriptures.
Though Gujarat remained
victimized at the hands of the Muslims, from the time of Mahmud Ghazni's
invasion on Somnath, the Hindu dynasties contined to rule over here.
Alauddin Khilji annexed
Gujarat in Delhi Sultanate in 1297. Ever since, Gujarat continued to be ruled
by the Muslim subhedaras appointed from Delhi.
The last subhedara
Jafar Khan was appointed in 1391. Practically, he was behaving like an
independent ruler, but formally, he gave up his subordination (under
Delhi-Sultanate) in 1401, and enthroned his son Tatarkhan in the name of
Nasiruddin Muhammed Shah as an independent ruler of Gujarat. Contemporary facts
seem to reveal that this new ruler was poisoned in 1407 by his own father. But
as the cycle of time would have it, this old man, who had become Sultan
Muhammed Shah, was in his own turn, poisoned by his grandson Alap Khan. And
then, Alap Khan himself rose to the throne and assumed the name Ahmed Shah.
Specially mentionable names amongst the Sultans of Gujarat are: Ahmed Shah,
Mahmud Bengra, Bahadurshah etc. These rulers ruled Gujarat from 1411 to 1572.
After that, Gujarat became a part of the Mughal empire.
Instead of providing
patronage to Hindu and Jain religion, the Sultans of Gujarat discouraged the
Hindus and the Jains, and attempted to demolish their religious places (dharma
sthalas). Despite this Jainism prospered here to sufficiency and Sangha-yatras
and construction and reconstruction of temples contibued to be. The credit of
this goes to those rich and influential shreshthis who had maintained
close and cordial or friendly or welcoming rapport with the Sultans of Delhi
and Gujarat. The credit also goes to those acharyas and suris
(heads of groups of monks) who laboriously and enthusiastically remained
involved in spreading and propagatin Jina religion.
It seems necessary to
name some mentionable shreshthis in this regard. Jinaprabha Suri's
'Vividha Tirtha Kalpa', Kakkasuri's Nabhinandanodhara Prabandha', 'Kharatara
Gachcha Brihad Guruavali', Vidyatilaksuri's 'Kanyanvaya Mahavira Kalpa
Parishesha', Pratishthasoma's 'Soma Soubhagya Kavya' etc. are the literary
sources worth mentioning. Information supplied by them and that by image
inscriptions is very important. One mentionable Upakeshi Jain shreshthi
Desak Putra Samar Shah (Samarsingh) had very cordial relations with Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq, and Alap Khan, the Khilji Subhedar of Gujarat. On the basis of
his calibre/caliber he was appointed an administrator of Telang region of South
India by Kutubuddin Mubarak Shah.
He had repaired the
Adinatha temple at Shatrunjaya and got firmans for the pilgrimages of
the members of the Jain society Another shreshthi Jasalshah constructed
Ajitnatha temple in the stambha-tirtha (Cambay or Khambhat) and a fasting hal
or an alms house in 1310. The prominent names of the Jain Sahus of
Gujarat of the 15th century are - Narsimha of Patan, Devarai of Barnagar,
Bandhu brothers Vishal and Govind of Idar, Vatsraj of Karnawati, Upakeshi
Oswal Sanghvi Mandalik, Porwasl Sanghvi Sahasa, and the shravaka
Karamashah of Tapagachcha from Chitrakuta.
During this period, the
Shvetambaras held sway in Gujarat. There are ample evidences of the existence
of their Kharatara, Tapa, and Anchala gachchas. The Lad-Vagada
and Nandi sanghas of the Digambara amnay too were sufficiently
effective in Gujarat this time. Many branches of these sanghas were set
up the centres of Surat, Sojitra, Braoch, Idar, etc. Engaged in the
transcription work at Ahmedabad, Lonka Shah had propounded that there is no
proof of idol worship in any ancienty Jain literature. His followers came to be
known as Lonkagachchiya. This gachcha was, later on, called Sthanak-Marg
of the Shvetambara amnay.
It is worth outlining
the part played by the Jain acharyas and literati of the Kharatara
gachcha, viz, Jinachandra (the third), Jinakushal, Jinasagar, Jinaharsha
and Jinachandra (the fourth) of the Kharatara gachcha; Suri Jaikalyan,
Jaichandra, Ratnashekhar of the Tapa gachcha, Kakka Suri of the Upakesha
gachcha, and Merutunga, Jaikirti and Jaikesari of the Anchala gachcha.
Somasunder of the Tapa
gachcha, and his disciple Munisunder and Sumati Sadhu Propagated
Shvetambara tenet to their best in the middle of the 15th century.
It was due to the
unswerving efforts and zeal of the Jain acharyas, suris, authors
and propagators/propagandists that the staunch Muslim rulers had to issue
permits for carrying out sangha-yatras and pilgrimages. While by orders
of the iconoclast Sultans, temples and idols were brought down to earth in
Shatrunjay, Girnar, Stambha-tirtha, (Cambay or Khabhat) Arbuda etc., the Jain
public was busy in the construction and reconstruction work right under their
nose. Destroyer or disructor was tiring, but not the builder. There came a sort
of flood of the small temples titivated with small beautiful images and copper-yantras
during this period. Thickly Jain populated places like palitana, Girnar,
Prahladpur, Tarangarh, Ahmedabad, Devakula patan etc. were throbbing with the
new creation of Jain literature and ancient Jain granthas (scriptures).
The mediaeval period of
Malwa began after the fall of the Parmaras. Though the mediaeval period of
Malwa began in the beginning of the 14th century, it had to face Islamic
attacks even earlier. In 724 A.D., the Arab invader Junaid had attacked Malwa,
but, probably, he was defeated by the Gurjara-Pratihara pwer. In 1196,
Kutubuddin Aibak carried his expeditions to the northern boundary of Malwa and
took an about-turn to Delhi. Malwa had to face bad days in 1235 wheb Sultan
Shamsuddin Iltutmish, the slave emperor of Delhi, looted Ujjain and other towns
and cities of Malwa. In 1305 Ain-Ul Mulk Multani, the general of Alauddin
Khilji, defeated mahalk, Des, the last emperor of east malwa, and extirpated te
Parmara power. Malwa remained a Suba upto 1401 under the Sultans of
Delhi. When the position of Malwa was vacillating or swinging and dithering at
the time of Timur's invasion, the Malwa subhedar, Dilwarkhan Ghori
declared his independence. In 1405, Dilawar Khan's son Alpa Khan came in power
in the name of Hoshangshah Ghori. He made Mandav his capital.
Hoshangshah died in
1435. His son Mohammed Khan Ghori was dethroned by his minister Mahmud Khilji
who established an independent Khilji rule in Malwa. His death took place in
1469. After him, gradually came Ghiyasuddin, Nasiruddin, Mahmud II etc. These
rules had to continuously fight with the rulers of Mewar and Sultans of
Gujarat. Bahadurshah, the ruler of Gujarat defeated Mahmud II, the last Khilji
ruler of malwa, and took Malwa under him. In the mean time, the Mughal emperor
Humayun invaded Bahadur Shah and made him flee from Malwa. Unfortunately,
Humayun returned without uprooting Bahadurshah completely. Resultantly, Bahadur
Shah again took possession of Malwa and appointed Mallukhan his subhedar
over there. Invading Gujarat, Mallukhan established his independent rule in
Malwa, but this was just a temporary phase. In 1542, Shershah Suri established
his suzeraintry in Malwa and appointed Shujawat Khan her subhedar. Thus,
Malwa again became a part of Delhi empire. After the death of Shershah, Shujwat
Khan declared himself and independent ruler of Malwa. Though Shujawat Khan had
parcelled it into three parts in favour of his three sons, Malik Byajid
snatched the kingdom from his brothers and began to rule entire Malwa in the
name of Bajbahadur.
Afghan Sultan Bajbahadur
could not remain the ruler of Malwa long. In 1561, Akbar sent his two
generals-Adham Khan and Pir Mohammed to conquer Malwa. Very cruelly and
inhumanly, these generals took Mandav in their hands, and once again annexed
Malwa to Delhi.
Malwa remained under the
Mughals in the time of Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan Aurangzeb etc. Adam Khan,
Abdul Khan, Shiyanuddin, Fakhruddin, Mirza Shahukh, Shihab Khan, Nakib Khan
etc. were the subhedars of Ujjain during Akbar's reign. In Jahangir's
time, the administration of Ujjain was in the hands of Motmid Khan. For
sometime. Jafar Khan and Jaswantsingh remained governors of malwa in
Aurangzeb's time. After the death of Aurangzeb, the Maratha's invasions over
Malwa began. And the Mughal governors failed to suppress these invasions.
Gradually, the Mughals adopted the policy of reconciliation. Of course, Malwa
came completely under the authority of the marathas by 1741.
Jainism made a
remarkable progress in Malwa during the period of the Sultans. In almost every
field (be it of politics, administration or construction) Jain administrators
and shreshthis had their voice. Even in social field, their voice was
felt, and say was heard. In the cultural and the administrative field, the poet
Mandan and Sangramsingh respectively were the two personages of the time. In
the history of Malwa, they have been rightly reckoned as the very important
persons.
It will not be out of
place to count the names of some other mentionable persons like Sanghapati
Holichandra and Jhanjhan, the Bikka-son, Sanghapati Dhanadraj, Dharna Shah,
Punjraj, Nardeo Soni, Megh, Shivraj, Bakkal, Jawad Shah and joodhir.
Digambara
Sect
Digambara Jain sect
prospered like anything in later mediaeval Malwa through the medium of the
Bhattarakas. The Punnat sangha, the Mula sangha, remained very
powerful in Malwa. The Mula sangha, the Kundakundanvay, the Saraswati gachcha,
the Balatkar gana etc. became sufficiently popular and were considerably
propagated. The Mathur sangha the Sena gana, the nandi sangha
etc. also showed their existence or paraded their presence. We have ample
information about them in the pattavalis and the image-inscriptions.
Mediaeval Bhattaraka tradition came to be divided into many brancehs. And the
description of the branches related to Malwa will be proper.
Padmanandi and his
disciples Nemachand and Sakalkirtideo and Vimalendra are some of the famous
names of the Bhattarakas of later branch. amongst the Bhattarakas of Idar
branch, the names of Sakalkirti, Bhuwankirti, Jnanbhushan, Vijayakirti,
Sumatikirti, Gunakirti, Vadibhushan, Ramkirti, padmanandi and Devendrakirti
deserve mentio. Similarly, the Bhattarakas of Bhanpur branch-Jnankirti,
Jinachandra, Sakalchandra etc. are known to us from the image-inscriptions of
Malwa. The Bhattaraka tradition of Rajputana started from padmanandi. The names
of the Bhattarakas of this tradition are also found in the image-inscriptions
of Malwa. Chief among them are-Shubhchandra, Jinachandra, Prabhachandra,
Lalitkirti, Chandrakirti, Devendrakirti and Narendrakirti. One branch of the
Bhattarakas of the Mula-sangha lived on even atter. Image-inscriptions
of Malwa region reveal these names of the Bhattarakas of this branch;
Jinachandra, Simhakirti, Vidyanandi, Jnanbhushan Jagatbhushan, Vishwabhushan
and Devendrabhushan. Same type of mention has been made of these Bhattarakas of
the Surat Branch: Devendrakirti, Vidyanandi and Lakshmichandra. Those of Jerhat
branch are : Tribhuvankirti, Dharmakirti, Padmakirti, Jagatkirti and Sakalkirti.
The Bhattarakas of the Kashtha sangha Nanditat gachcha, and the
Bhattarakas - Tribhuvankirti and Ratnabhushan of the Vidya gana
Ramsenanvay are also mentioned.
Shvetambara
Tradition
The Shvetambara
tradition divided into more than hundred gachchas. The main and the most
famous gachchas of Malwa which found mention are : the Tapa gachcha,
the Kharatara-gachcha and the like.
We find evidences of the
existence of a number of gachchas of the Shvetambara sect of later
mediaeval Malwa. The image-inscriptions of Ratnasingh Suri, Jnansagar
and Udalsagar of the Tapa and the Brihat Tapa gachcha are found
in Malwa. Similarly, image-inscriptions of the Lagu Tapagachcha acharyas
like Vijay Suri, Somasunder Suri, Sunder Suri,
Ratnashekhar Suri, Lakshmisagar Suri, Sumadeo Suri,
Sumatisadhu Suri, Udayan Suri, Jaikalyan Suri, Hema-Vimala
Suri, Charansunder Suri etc. have also been found.
The Kharatara gachcha
of Malwa was just next to the Tapa gachcha. This was equally well
propagated; its diffusion and extension was quite wide. The acharyas
like Jinabhadra Suri, Jinachandra Suri, Jinasagar Suri, Jinaraj Suri and
Jinakushal Suri, and Nayaysunder Upadhyaya, and Muni
Merusunder of this gachcha belonged to Malwa.
As a matter of fact,
Jain scenario this time was such that it could hardly be bound by regional
territories. Jain activities happening in Malwa were different from those
happening in the nearby Gujarat and Rajasthan. But to some extent, the ganas
and the gachchas prevalent there were in a sense, the prototype of those
of Malwa of the later mediaeval period.
In the present context,
certain, pertinent questions strike to our mind. The most surprising thing is
how could the intolerant Sunni Turk rulers with all their rigid
religious constraints provide so many facilities to the Jains? How could they
be liberal towards Jains whileas they could not be so to the newly converts of
Islam, Sufis and to some extent to Shiyas? How it came that
during the rule of barbarous, cruel, fanatic rulers, administrators, amirs
and generals who believed in looting and wrecking the temples. a number of Jain
temples, Upasaras, libraries and dharmasthalas could be saved? The
reasons there of seem to be as follows
1. The roots of the
Sultans in India had gone deep in India, but as the time elapsed, the incoming
of the Turk generals, the amirs of administrative capacity came to a
halt. And this happened because of the changing military and political
conditions in Central Asia and Afghanistan. Though the Afghans were entering
Indi, they had formed a separate class of their own. And that class began to
mix up with the local public for their existence, and for the fulfilment of
their ambitions. The military and administrative necessity compelled the
Sultans so first depend on the Hindus confessing Islam, and on the Rajputs and
the Jains. A plently of examples are there with respect to this. They had to
make the Rajput feudals and generals the medium to control and suppress revolts
in the far off regions. And when the loot-point began to touch its last
marginal limit, the Sultans had no other alternative than to depend on the
wealthy Jain community to meet their fiscal needs and casulties. This way the
prevailing situation forced these bigots to surrender with no condition
whatsoever.
2. By and by, those
foreigners of Islam confession who entered India had to go through the process
of Indianization. They felt it necessary to win confidence of the local
population to maintain law and order. On account of the disintegrating
political factors during mediaeval period, mutual conflict and selfish
gealousies became very commonly the order of the day. The economy of loot was
crossing the marginal or rather its eleasticity limit. Their war and luxurious
tendencies caused terrible spendthrift and told heavily on the exchequer. And
this made them dependent on the wealthy who were mostly Jains. Hence, they
thenceforth began to attract the rich Jains of the nearby areas to their side
by guaranteeing the security of their life and belongings. Thus many Jain
families emerged as a well established class during the Muslim period. Now they
got an apposite opportunity to display the skill and craft, ability and wisdom
which they had acquired from centuries old traditions. And, because of this
very reason, they were given high posts of administration and honour. Only the
Almighty knows what they cherished and nourished within their bosom, but it is
certainly true that had to allow or overlook the new constructions and old
reconstructions of the Jains, and issue firmans for the Sangha-Yatras.
Along with this , they had to give due regards to some influential Jain sadhus,
saints and acharyas.
3. Certain Hindu damsels
in the harem of the Sultans also exerted their influence on them. And they were,
indeed, influenced by them. May be, their influence might not have been
permanent, they yet inspired the rulers to behave well with the local people.
4. The contemporary
Jain-world was also realizing the matter of factness or virtuality. In order to
safeguard their trade and commerce, and the religious places (dharma sthalas)
they came to the front to fulfil the needs of the rulers and their families.
Luckily their vast pelf diffused as a means of exchange from their secret
hoards or far off villages and towns to big cities. This economic empire of
theirs was out of political perimeters. Therefore, the ruling class had to
succumb to a few conditions of theirs, bear with their socio-economic
Yardsticks and provide security and protection to them.
Due to the declining
position of Delhi Sultanate, many regional states came into existence. This put
an end to their military and fiscal demands. But, now, they could no more loot
that public on whose help and cooperation depended their very existence.
Therefore, where on the one hand the importance of the Rajput and the Vaishya
caste increased, the reputation and esteem of the Jain community on the other
hadn also increased more in comparison to what it was in the early times.
This state of affairs
continued during the Mughal period also. Just after their entry into India, the
Muslim rulers had realized the necessity of taking the Rajputs and the Jains
into confidence. probably having this in mind, Akbar adopted liberal and
tolerant policy in his later career. Else, he is also reported to have been a
religious bigot during the early period of his rule. The same policy of
forbearance and munificence was followed by his respective successors -
Jahangir and Shahjahan. Aurangzeb, however, abandoned this policy, and for
which the Mughal empire had to pay. On paper of course, the later Mughal rule
continued for long, but factually it could not bear with the foreign invasions
and disintegrating forces. Such being the case, it was destined to meet its
fall very fast.
Looking to the amicable
relations of the Muslim rulerswith the Jains, and the fact that many of the
jain constructions remained defended, certain, scholars have expressed that
there was some sort of pact between the Sufis and the Jains, and that the Jains
in their turn were as a matter of fact, taking anti-national steps by
financially helping the Muslim rulers to carry out their expeditions against
the Indian rulers.
But both of these doubts
are baseless. collection or raising money for the Muslim rulers by the Jain shreshthis
was a mere outwards pretence. That time it was the same type of compulsion
on the part of the Jains as it was on the part of the Muslims in respect to
their goodwill towards the Jains. Being a non-violent community the Jains have
ever gone on looking to the ruling class, for the smooth sail of and
non-interference in their trade and commerce and in safeguarding their
religious place or places of pilgrimage and making journeys to them ferlessly.
Moreso, the Jains had no other go than this, especially when the Hindu power
was extirpated from many regions. Here this has not to be forgotten that in
Malwa and other regions, it were these Jains obly who by spreading out their
financila and intellectual net could, to a greater extent, build up the atmosphere
of tolerance during the reign of intolerant Muslim rulers, and thus keep intact
Indian values and voices. This too needs be delineated that the Jain shreshthis
cooperated with the Hindu dynasties open heartedly and quite liberally.
Bhamashah who gave his all for the sake of freedom was after all a Jain.
Jainism
During The Mughal Period
Delhi Sultanate was
completely wiped out along with the defeat of Ibrahim Lodi in the first Battle of
Panipat in 1526. And then came to power the Mughal dynasty. In the interregnum
of 15 years during the Mughal period there was a rule of Afghan Suri dynasty.
Babar (1526-30), Humayun (1530-40), Shershah Suri (1540-55), again Humayun for
some time, Akbar (1556-1605), Jahangir (1605-27), Shahjahan (1627-58),
Aurangzeb (1658-1707) became kings respectively. Amongst the later Mughals,
only the reign of Muhammed Shah was of some importance from Jain viewpoint.
In the early Mughal
period, the Jain dharmacharyas related to Jain amnays and shreshthis
got importance worthy of name. They got freedom of pilgrimage,
state-restriction on animals sacrifice (more or less), concession for
construction and reconstruction of
temples etc. But the all comprehensive and all pervading glow and shine of
Jainism grew sufficiently dim. And the contemporary condition was such that the
Jain Sadhus and Sahus did, no doubt, get royal respect but many
Jain authors had felt the compulsion of eulogizing the ruling monarchs in their
works, granthas. And, this was not the fruit of friendliness of harmony,
but a kind of agreement which Aurangzeb broke in no time.
Even then, some bright
facts neet mention-surprisingly enough the references in the jain literature
are corroborated by the abundant image-inscriptions found in Gujarat, Malwa,
Rajasthan and North India. Thisprovides credibility to the history of Jainism.
In the time of the first
Mughal ruler, Bhattaraka Yashkirti Sahu Hemraj installed many Jain images in
the temples. 'Pandav Purana' and 'Harivansh Purana' were also completed this
time by the instance Bhattaraka. One Jain poet Mahachandra was honoured by
Babar. In his time, permission for building a temple was given to the Digambara
Sadhu Sadhprasad and seth Neminath. This type of act went on in
the time of Humahun also. Babar and Humayun both had esteem for a Jain Sadhu,
Anandmeru. Shrichandra Manikchandra, Devacharya, Shreyakirti etc. were the
famous Jains of the capital of the time of Shershah Suri.
Humayun's successor,
Jalaluddin Akbar proved a great, national and tolerant ruler. During his reign,
liberal policy was adopted for the Hindu as well as the Jain religion. This
time, Delhi was a centre of the Digambara Kashtha Sangha. Many
Shvetambara Yatis also exerted their influence. The first Jain dharmacharya
to be revered by Akbar was Muni Padmasunder the author of the famous
'Akbar Shringar Darpankar'. On being invited by Akbar, most renowned Bhattarak
Harivijay Suri of Tapagachcha of Gujarat came to Agra. The two
had an extensive discussion with each other. Akbar adorned Harivijay Suri
with the epither— "Jagadguru". But, there is no valid proof to the
effect that Akbar adopted Jainism being influenced by the preachings and
precepts of Harivijay Suri. Akbar had invited a Jain orater, Vijaysen
Gani to Lahore. Akbar had also invited there to Jinachandra Suri, the author of
'Akbar pratiobodh Ras'. He bestowed on him the title—"Yug Pradhan".
At the instance of Akbar and shreshthi Karmachandra Bachchawat,
Jinachandra handed over his patta (seat) to his disciple Mansingh.
Rajmalla (of the Kashtha sangha) and Jinadas pande, and Vidya Harsh Suri,
Pandit Banarsidas etc. have extolled Akbar in their works. Akbar was deeply
influenced by the Jain Yati Bhanuchandra's persian knowledge also.
Karmachandra Bachchawat,
an ex-minister of Bikaner and an able disciple of Jinachandra Suri, was
very close to Akbar. On his request, 1050 Jina-images, which were taken from
sirohi to Delhi royal store, were sent to Bikaner. Raja Bharmalla of the
Shrimal caste and the son of the Mughal governor Ranakrai, was a most able of
the time. Akbar had appointed him the governor of Sambhar region, and invested
him with ample powers. His headquraters were at Nagaur. He used to send enough
money to the centre every year. Sadhu Todarmal was a mentionable Jain gentleman of Agra. Taking Akbar into
confidence, he not only built new temples in Agra and Muttra (Mathura), but
renovated a number of old temples. Being impressed with the ability of his Jain
minister Khimji, Akbar give him the charge of Ranthambhor fort. One Agrawal
Sahu, Ranvira was a treasurer and a mint officer in the time of Akbar.
Saharanpur was founded by him.
Jahangir's attitude
towards Jainism was the same as Akbar's. Jinachandra's patta successor
was Jinasimha Suri who influenced Jahangir so much that he (Jahangir)
gave him the title of "Yug Pradhan". Jahangir used to honour Vijaysen
Suri of the Tapagachcha the way he sued to honour Hiravijay. Hre
gave him the epithet- "Mahatapa".
During Jahangir's reign,
Pandit Banarsidas and an Oswal Seth, Hiranand Mukim were held in high
esteem. Seth Hiranand was Jahangir's Johari/assayer (or tester). He also
had an opportunity to be Jahangir's guest, and receive his hospitality.
Unfortunately, a minor incident brought in difference between the two, and, as
a consequence, seth Mukim had to pay penalty. The name of Shrimal
gotriya Pt. Banarsidar remained one of high repute and regards from the time of
Akbar to that of Shajahan. In the court too, he was held in high esteem. His grandfather
and father had been the high officers in the service of the Mughals. His early
life was spent in Jaunpur, his youth and Youth plus time in Agra, and old age
was spent in Prayag (Allahabad). He was a great poet, an exceptional shcolar,
an experienced metaphysician and a spititualist. His residence "Shaili"
was a place where coterie of scholars used to be. Those who Participated in
them were, indeed, persons of high repute and rare shcolarship. Jahangir's
successor, Shahjahan used to play chess with him and while playing he used to
discuss certain important matters with him. Coteries used to be organized in
his time also. Tihuna Sahu built a temple in Agra in 1635, and in 1638 seth
Shantidas built a Jain temple of Shantinath (Chintamani temple) in Ahmedabad.
Sanghvi Rishabhdas, Sanghpati Ratnasi, Sabalsingh Mothia, Hemraj Patni
etc. were some other shining gems of the time of Jahangir. Similarly, the
prominent Jain Shreshthis of the time of Shahjahan were - Sanghvi
Sangramsingh, Johari Shantidar, Sanghpati Bhagvandas.
Aurangzeb was a staunch Sunni.
He was able, no doubt, but was intolerant. Progress of Jainism was considerably
baulked in his time. Even then Jainism continued to prosper in the Rajput
states.
During Aurangzeb's
reign, two world-famed creditors (Sahukars) were there. One was Viraji Vohra of
Surat. he was already well established as a rich businessman in the time of
Shahjahan. In Aurangzeb's time, he had a firm grip over foreign and west Indian
coastal trade. He was follower of Lonkagachcha. Lavji Swai (Lavana
Rishi), the founder of Sthanakmargi Dhundhia tradition belonged
to Vohra's familial tradition.
Second one was the Oswal
Seth Hiranand Shah of Agra. In Aurangzeb's time, he had settled in
Patna. This time Bihar, once again, was blooming as a Jain centre. The two
Oswal brothers-Kunwarpal and Sonpal. originally from Agra, but then living in
Patna, were constructing a Jain temple that time. Later on seth Hiranand
went to live in Murshidabad, the capital of Bengal. His son Mabikchandra progressed
remarkably and received the title of "Raja". Later Mughal emperor
Muhammed Shah gave his son Fatehchand the title of "Jagat seth".
Gradually his trust became the richest commercial establishment. Afterwards,
the Britishers, showing fear of Sirajudaula to Jagat Seth Shuganchand,
not only indulged in heinous loot but also ended the glorious tradition of Jagat
seth. The last seth had the credit of building water-temple
(Jala-Mandir) at Sammet Shikhar.
Askaran, the Sanghpati of
Dhamoni (Damoh-Bundelkhan), Vardhman Navalakha, the inspirer of the coterie of
Jain scholars, Tarachand, the diwan of Fatehpur were some of the best
Jain shreshthis of the time of Aurangzeb. Seth Ghasiram of Delhi,
Lala Kesarisingh, Jagat seth Fatehchand were the prominent figures
during the reign of the later Mughals Farrukhsiyar and Muhammed Shah.
The
Rajput States Of North India
Many Rajput states were
set up in north and west India during the Sultanate and the Mughal period. The
decline of the Tomars and the Chahmanas from Delhi offered these states a
chance to take advantage of the contemporary disordered political situation and
take possession of many places in South and South-east. This is the reason why
we find the Chahmanas ruling in the nearby regions of Agra, namely chandrawad,
Karhal and Ganeshkuri, and Tomars in Aisah and Gwalior.
The Chahman's reign in
Chandrawad remained in existence in the 13th and the 14th century. Its founder,
Chandrapaldas took possession of the terriroty (lying between the Chambal and
the Yamuna) governed by the Bhar rulers after being defeated by the Sultans.
They made Raibaddiya their capital. This capital, later on was shifted to
Chandrawad. After chandrapal were enthroned Bharatpal, Abhaypal-I Jahad,
Ballal, Ahavamalla, Sambhari rai, Sarangdev, Abhaypal-II, Jaichand, Ramchandra
and Rudrapratap as rulers of Chandrawad, one after the other. Most of these
rulers were of Jain confession. The posts of minister, general and city-seth
(Nagar-Seth) were reserved for Jain families. Amongst the ministers of
Chandrawad, the names of Ramsingh of Harul family, Amritpal, Sodu,
Krishnaditya, and Jasdhar of Jaiswal family of Yadu descent (lineage), Gokarna,
Somadeva Vasadhan etc. deserve mention. The last one was most learned, religioso,
and a builder of Jain temples. A brave general Krishnaditya and a Shreshthi
Nemidas too were not far behind in the installation of Jina images and
construction of temples. Lokshman, Shivdev etc. were the famous Jain poets of
this time. Famous poet Dhanpal, and a great poet Raidhu came over Chandrawad as
travellers. Here also they wielded their pen. Anantkirti, Bhattaraka of the Kashtha
sangha spent enough time here.
The Chahmana state of
Karhal was also given to the following of Jainism. This state in the 15th
century was respectively governed by Bhojraj, Sansarchandra (Prithviraj) etc.
The administrative responsibility, here, was in the hands of a Jain Amarsingh
of Yadu lineage and those of the members of the family and his kith and kin.
Lona Sahu was a very Prominent figure. A patronized poet of this state was
Jaymitra Holla who composed 'Mallinatha Charita". Another Poet Aswal wrote
"Parshvanath Charita'.
The
Tomars Of Gwalior
After the fall of Kachchapghats,
there came in power the Tomars in power the Tomars in Gwalior (ancient
Gopalchal or Gopadri) region. In the second Battle of Tarain, one branch of the
Tanwars escaped from Delhi and settled in this region. The rule of the Tanwars
proved to be one of climax in regard to the rise and progress of Jain sects and
Jain constructions. Hence, it will be justified to discuss about the Tomar
dynasty here.
Being defeated by
Shahabuddin Ghori, the Tomars of Delhi escaped elsewhere. One branch came to
the region called Samprati Tanwardhar under the supervision of an able and a
glorious leader Achal Brahma. He succeeded in establishing here a small state
the headquarters of which was Aisah (probably, the original name was Aisahmani
or Ishmani). Some of its scions went elsewhere as ayudhjivis those
earning velihood by spending on arms). Lateron, under the leadersip of
Medinirai and silhadi etc., they filled in an important role in Malwa region as
Purbiya Rajputs.
A daughter of Achal
Brahma was married to the Parihar ruler Malayvarman of Gopadri. The marriage
contributed immensely to the political rise of the Tomars. The 7th generation
of this descent sas the rise of Kamalsingh (Ghatamdeo or Kunwarpal). Ibnbatua
mentions him as 'Katam'. He was brave and ambitious. He wanted to make his
dreams come true by killing Badra, a religious and a terrorist, a savage of the
nearby region Alapur. Not only this, he had a design for his son and son-in-law
also. He invaded the Afghan governor of Rapari but to no avail. In an attempt
to capture Gopadri fort, he was killed some time near 1340. Consequently, the
Tomars weakned. His successor Dev Verma (Dev Brahma) had to recruit himself in
the army of Feroz Tughlaq just to keep up his existence. The death of Feroz
Tughlaq in 1388 hastened the fall of the Mughal empire. Dev Verma's son
Virasinghdeo tried to take advantage of the situation. On the basis of literary
and epigraphical sources, it may be assumed that he ruled between 1375 and
1400. Tughlaq general, IslamKhan went a long way in blunting Virasinghdeo's
ambition for independence. Finally, qua Tughlaq governor, he captured Gopadri
about 1394. Timur's invasion caused disorderliness and unrest. Taking advantage
of the shaking situation, Virasinghdeo Tomar declared himself an independent
ruler of Gopadri.
Virasinghdeo was a lover
of literature, and a thoroughly cultured man. "Virasimhavalok' concerns
him. Jaisingh Suri, the founder of Shrikrishna gachcha, and his disciple
and author of the granthas like 'Hammira Mahakavya', Naichandra Suri
added feathers to Virasinghdeo's crown. Being terrorized by Timur's invasions,
many a Jain shreshthi and dharmacharya of north India settled in
Gopadri. Therefore, the Prospering Kashtha Sangha and Mathuranvay
connected with Mathura came to limelight in this area.
The reign of
Virasinghdeo's successor, Udharandeo proved short-lived. After him dawned the
age of Viramdeo Tomar (1402-23). It was one of bravery and cultural awakening
of consciousness.
Viramdeo was a patron of
literuature, art and religion. Jainism got enough chances for prospering, His
minister Kushrai was Jain. At his instance, Padmnath Kayastha wrote. Yashodhara
Charit', the epic. A big grand and artistic temple of Chandraprabhu was caused
to be built by him. This was, later on converted into Muhammed Gausa's
mausoleum. According to the patta-tradition of the Bhattarakas of Kashtha
sangha of Gwalior, as, given by Raidhu in his 'Sammai Charit', the time of
Bhattaraka Gunakirti was this only.
Naichandra suri
the author of 'Hammir Mahakavya' and 'Rambha Mamanjari' added to the glory of
Gwalior even during the reign of Viramdeo. Certain Jain inscriptions of Gwalior
fort mention Virang (Viram) deo with honour.
After Viramdeo,
Ganapatideo became the ruler of Gopadri. He reigned from 1423 to 1425. His
successor was Dungrendra singh (Dungarsingh or Dungrendradeo). He was brave and
skilled in warfare. His successor Kirtisingh (1459-80) has been called
"Hindu Surtran" in a Jain inscription. He was indeed, a brave son of
a brave father.
The reign of
both-Dungrendrasingh and Kirtisingh was phenomenal with regard to Jain
religion, art, architecture and literature. The wonderful Jain images of
Gwalior fort belong to their reign. These images of the rock cut temples are
the none-such treasure of Indian art-world. We have more than 1500 images which
can be grouped into 5 per their direction. They all present an example par
excellence. They bespeak the then state of the art technology. Most of
the images are in standing or in seated cross-legged posture (Khadgasan
or Padmasan). The Jain images of Gwalior fort have no second in
vastness. many of the images bear inscriptions praising the glory of Dungrendra
and Kirtsingh. They also mention the Bhattarakas of gopalchal patta (seat),
Viz, Ganakirit, Yashakirti, Malayakirti, Gunabhadra etc. The great poet Raidhu
was the glory of Gopachal this time. Raidhu, the author of about 30 books (in
Prakrit) has been mentioned in some of the inscriptions as the one concerned
with installation ceremony (Pratishthacharya). There is a long array of
the Jain personages of this time. Some of them are : Vivudh, Shridhar (and
other poets), and Sahu Kamalsingh, Mantrishwar Kushraj, Brahma Khelha,
Brahmachari, Aspati, Ranmal, Kheu, Harsi, Bhullan, Tosath, Hemraj, sanghapati
Kalpa Shrichand, Harichand, Sahu Lapu, Khemsingh, Nemdas, Holu,
Padmasingh, Sahadeo, Kumudchandra, and many other sanghapatis, shreshthis
and governors or administrators.
From among the later
Tomar rulers after Kirtisingh came Kolyanmalla (1488-1516), Vikramaditya
(1516-23), Ramsingh, Shaliwain successively to the throne of Gopadri.
Successors of Mansingh
were weaklings. Inspite of the best efforst of Vikramaditya, the succeessor of
Mansingh, Gopadri went into the hands of Ibrahim Lodi. Tomar Kingdom became
part and parcel of Delhi empire, and losing its total existence upto 16th
century, it became a subject of history.
Certain images of the
time of Mansingh have been found from Gopachal. This shows that Jainism till
then was somehow or the other, prospering, Shreshthi Khemshah of his
time began to inspire the literators.
The establishment of the
Muslim and the Mughal sovereignty/suzerainty over Gwalior gave a set-back to
Jain religion and the building activities pertaining to it. And when it emerged
as the capital of the Scindias in 1810, new people began new activities new
way. though of course, Jainism continued to be over there, but its ancient
glory passed away from Gopadri for good.
The Rajput states of
Rajasthan : Right
from the ancient times, Rajasthan has been a seat and centre of Jainism. and
there are evidences to prove this. In the early mediaeval Rajasthan and west
India, the zealot Jain sadhus, acharyas and Bhattarakas
popularized Jainism by their unflinching and unswerving efforts. Resultantly,
many Hindu families adopted Jainism. interest in Jainism of even royal houses
was up. The Pratiharas and the Chahmanas not only patronized Jainism but
contributed a great deal to its expansion. Thus, form the 7th to the 12th
century, the graph of Jainism tended to escalation. Voluminous Jain literature,
numerous inscriptions and images attest to this fact.
Islamic invasions gave a
fatal blow both to the Hindu and the Jain religion and their religious
buildings in Rajasthan. The Arab inveder Junaid carried a ghastly and gory
expedition in Rajasthan in the 8th century. The invasions of the Turk Mahmud
Ghazni looted and damaged all those villages, towns and cities which came his
way. He did his all to give a blow to the social and religious faith of the
people of Kiradu, Nadol, Osia etc. Jain businessmen of Rajasthan had to
continuously face Muslim invasions during the Sultanate period. The attaks made
by Kutubuddin Aibak and Iltutmish during the Slave Period on Ajaymeru (Ajmer),
Arbud (Aju), Naghrida (Nagda), Shrimal (Bhinmal) Ranastambhapur (Ranthambhor)
Mandor, Jalor etc., and those of Alauddin Khilji on Haroti, Marwar and Mewar
regions in the early decades of the 14th century severaly and seriously hurt
the non-violent spirit of Jainism One Jain structure was converted into Islam
and given the name-'Adhai-din-ka Jhonpra'. The Jain temples of Sanchor, Jalor,
Jiravalli etc. were completly smashed-up and form their remains were built
mosques. This Process continued even during the Tughlaq period. One Tughlaq
governor of Bayana did many unworthy deeds. Taking advantage of an-ex-parte
and simplistic references, some Muslim historians have tried to prove that this
was an age of cultural cordiality and social coordination between the Jains and
the Sufis, but in so doing they are, really overlooking the intolerant
policy of the staunch ulemas and their misdeeds and blackdeeds, and putting a
sign of interrogation before the impartiality of history. The liberal quality
of the Sufis will have to be connected with the rigidity and staunchness
of the Sunnis. only then, an impartial presentation of Jaino-Islamic
relations would be possible.
The beginning Years of
the reign of Akbar prove religious bigotry. It was Akbar who demolished Jain
temples of Sirohi in 1576 and took more than 1000 images to Delhi. Almost the
same story holds good in case of Akbar's military expeditions in Rajasthani
regions. While deciding and determining the back-ground of Akbar's greatness
and his tolerance stock of his immoral and unethical activities will have to be
taken so that the credit may be given to the Jain followers who patiently bore
what went on and who finally gave an impetus to Akbar for changing his policy.
And the works done just after are a subject of history. The destruction at
Ranakpur Kesariyaji, Dhulev etc. could be made good of owing to the creative
tendency of the Jains. Behind the background of the existence of Jain religion
during the Muslim and the Mughal period, we see the mixture of the material
prosperity and the inner energy of the dharmacharyas of the Jains and
the facilities given to them by the rulers because of their vested interests.
Brief
Political History of Rajasthan
At the time of the
establishment of Muslim rule in Delhi, Rajasthan was divided into many small
and big principalities where different Rajput dynasties ruled.
Mewar
: The dawn of the
13th century in Mewar introduces us to Kshemsingh. He was of Rana lineage and
his capital was Nagda (Naghrida). His son Jaitrasingh made Chittor (chitrakuta)
his capital where he ruled from 1213 to 1261. Jainism prospered like anything
in the time of Jaitrasingh, his son Tejsingh and grandson Samarsingh.
Tejasingh's queen-in-chief Jayatalladevi played an important part. Being
charmed by the beauty of the queen padmini, Alauddin Khilji attacked Chittor
following imperialistic policy. Rana Ratansingh was killed by the stroke of
deceit. Threat padmini and many others performed Johar (Mass immolation
on fir For some time after this, the sun of Mewar remained almost set. in 1326,
under the leadership of Hammir, the Sisodia dynasty was established. He
returned the past glory to Chittor by his influence and bravery. This practice
was continued by his successors Khetsingh (1364-82), Rana Lakha (1382-1421) and
Rana Mokal (1421-33). Successfully facing the Sultans of Gujarat and Malwa,
Mokal's son Maharana Kumbha (1433-68) once again let the sun of Mewar shine in
the whole of north India. He had two weak and unpopular successors Uda and
Raimal. After Taimal, Maharana Sangramsingh
( Rana Sanga) took reigns of Mewar in his hands. he was brave like Rana Kumbha,
but unfortunately he was defeated at the hands of Babar in the Battle of
Khanwa. He left behind him the weak successors like Ratansingh, Vikramaditya
and Banwir. No wonder, therefore. It Chittor under these circumstances had to
have bitter and unpalatable potation in the form of attacks by Sultan
Bahadurshah of Gujarat, suri ruler Shershah and Mughal Padshah Akbar.
After the death of Rana
Udaisingh in 1572, Rana Pratapsingh became the ruler of Mewar. Rana Pratap made
himself immortal in Indian history by losing his all at the hands of Akbar in a
bid to save the name, fame and glory of Mewar (even at the cost of his life).
Udaipur was made the
capital of Mewar by his son Amarsingh (1597-1620). The cordial relations
maintained by this Rana with the Mughals continued in the time of his
successors karansingh, Jagatsingh & C. till Marathas Under Peshwas played
theri decisive part in this region.
Certain Princes related
to Mewar dynasty also tested their fate in the nearby areas/belts. Samantsingh
Paved the way for Mewar in Vagad by extirpating the Bhils and the Chahmana
feudals from there. During the reign of Maharana Jagatsingh, Rao Virasingh
(1280-1303) founded a separate state where his successor Dungarsingh
established the town Dungarpur and made it his capital. In the time of his
successors Rawal Gopinath (1424-48), Udalsingh (1497-1527) and others, this
continued to progress. Later on this state supported the policy of Mewar in dealings with Mughals and Marathas.
Same was the story of
Banswara. Udaisingh, the Rawal of Dungarpur had divided his state
between his two sons, and owing to which came into existence what is called Banswara.
Though it had constant confrontation with Gujarat, Dungarpur, Mughals, Mewar
and Marathas, the rulers remained patrons of art and culture.
One ambitious Prince
Surajmal laid the foundation of Dewaliya Pratapgarh in the early decades of the
16th century. His successors-Baghsingh, Sangramsingh, Salamsingh etc. very
patiently and cleverly succeeded in keeping intact its existence and glory.
Jainism got ample
opportunities to grow and prosper in these Mewar states.
It was a wonderful
coincidence that while on the one hand, there was almost everywhere bloodshed
on the land of Mewar due to Muslim and Mughal attacks, the Jain community on
the other hand was touching the height in the field of trade and commerce,
administration, art and architecture, and literature. The Jains were holding
high posts in the Muslim court. Most of the Jain acharyas etc. were held
in great price. Barring certain exceptions, the rulers of Mewar were giving
patrongage to Jain religion quite enthusiastically. Such condition was at its
peak during the time of Rana Kumbha (Kumbhakarn). While Rana was carrying his
victory flag in all directions, the Jains were carrying out their beautiful
building activities with their Digambara and Shevatambara consciousness and
traditions. A mention of some bright points will not be otherwise here.
The Mewar of the time of
the Rajputs has kept intact the sweet and pious memory of many Jain acharyas,
Bhattarakas, sadhus and shreshthis through the medium of sacred
books, inscriptions, religious architecture and images. Be it Bhadreshwar,
Devbhadra, Siddhasen, Jineshwar, Vijaysing, Bhuwansingh, Ratnaprabha of the Chaitra
gachcha, Sarvonand Suri of the patta of Ratnaprabha, Suri
Somasunder, Muni Sunder, Somadev, Jaishekhar, Jinaharsha Gani,
Ratnashekhar, Manikyaratna Gani of the Tapa gachcha, or acharya
Jinaraj Jinavardhan, Jinchandra, Jinsagar and Jinsundar of the Kharatara
gachcha all of these Shevetambara dharmacharyas had immaculate love
nd tender feelings for Mewar. It was Mewar that got the prashasti
(eulogy) of the great Suri Harivijayaji; It was Mewar that received
great tradition of the Digambara Bhattarakas Keshavchandra, Devchandra,
Abhaykirti, Basantkirti, Vishalkirti and Shubhakirti in the person of
Dharmachandra in the 13th century; again it was Mewar where the Bhattarakas
Sakalkirti, Bhuwankirti, Brahmginraj etc. were honoured on this side idolatry.
Mewar also witnessed with its eyes the religious activities of the acharyas
like Dharmakirit of the Kashtha sangha and those of Abhinav Prabhachandra
of the Patta of the acharya Jinachandra of the Nandi sangha
Saraswati gachcha Balatkar gana. In this century, the queen Jaytalladevi
built a temple of black Parshvanatha in Chittor being influenced by the
preachings of Devendra Suri and Pradyuman Suri. She had also
inspired her husband to sanction grants for religious deeds. How can Mewar
forget Sanak's son Sah Jija of the Bangherwal caste and his relatives like
Dinak, Nathu, Jiju and Purnsingh who constructed the famous glory pillar (Kirti
stambha) at Chittor? This can also not forget Dhannalal and his son
Ratanshah of the Pragvat caste of the 15th century who, inspite of their busy
career of 65 years (1433-98), had built a very costly vast Jain temple at
Ranakpur which is famous for its marble pillars. It was out of their deep
rooted religiosity.
During Raimalla's reign
in the 15th century, one Samant Rao Shivsingh of Modasa became an unforgettable
figure. It was in his time that at the instance of the acharya
Jinachandra suri of the Kharatara gachcha, one great shreshthi
Jivaraj Papriwal built innumerable Jina-images and installed them in the Jain
temples of almost entire India by carrying journeys to a number of religious
sites (dharmasthalas). Many of these images are dated in Samvat 1548,
i.e. 1480-91 A.D. Many scholars feel proud in adopting Jivaraj Papriwal's name
in the form of image-building tradition.
The names of the shreshthis
who did a lot for religious activities, art architecture and literature are
mainly those of the Pragvat Sah Nana Sanghapati Dhanpal, Oswal
Gunraj, Soma's son Harpal, Sah Hardan, Sah Jagasi, Bhandari
Vela, Seth Dharna Ramdev Nolakha, Hasa, Lakshmansingh, Shravaka
Ratansingh, Bhandari Tolashah, Diwan Bachcharaj, Mantri
Karmashah, Shah Asha, Durgpala (fort protector) Bharmal Kawadia,
Bhamashah, the great renunciative. Even today, the damaged or fully intact
religious structures, and written or transcribed scriptures at Nagada, Chittor,
Udaipur, Kwshriyaji etc. Speak eloquently about the religious activities that
went on during this period.
In Vagda region, the Tapa
and the Kharata gachchas were effectively popular. The Kashtha, the
Nanditat and the Lad Vagada sanghas of the Digambara amnay
(tradition) have has asserted their existence here Besides the headquarters of Dungarpur,
Banswara, and pratapgarh Upar, Galiyakot, Antaru Nowgana, Deoli, Jhasandi etc.
also remained the centres of Jain religion and constructions of this
confession. This region did not lag behind even in the transcription of Jain granthas
(religious books). The ministers (amtyas) like sabha, Salha, Humbar,
Doshi Pampa and their families also constributed immensely to Jainism. In the
journey of progress of Jainism, they indeed, did a lot.
The
Chahmana Rule
After the Pratiharas,
the Chahmana rulers gave enough patronage and fillip to Jain religion. The
credit for this goes, in the main, to Nadol, shakambhari and Ajmer branches of
the early Chahmanas.
After the defeat of
Prithviraj Chahmana-III in the Battle of Tarain in 1192, the power of the early
Chahmanas dwindled, rather almost ended. one son of his, Govindraj had founded
Ranthambhor. Its most powerful ruler Hamirdeo (1283-1310) had to bid farewell
to this world in his fight against Alauddin Khilji. Along with this was fared
the chahmana rule well.
In 1205, Udaisingh of
Jalor branch of the Chahmanas took Nadol, Bhinmal, Barmer, Ratanpur, Sanchora,
Kiradu etc. under his control while carrying his inperalistic and extensional
expeditions. After him Chachigdeo and Samantsingh became the rulers in succession,
Kanhardeo was a brave and a warrior ruler of this branch. But fighting with the
army of Alauddin, he lost his life. Thus, the rule of the Chahmanas of Jalor
branch also ended in 1310.
One more mentionable
Chahmana branch of later mediaeval Rajasthan was that of Sirohi. This branch
was founded by Dewada Sahasmal in 1425. One of its rulers Jagmal established
cordial relations with Mewar and defeated Bahlol Lodi. His son Akheraj
(1523-33) had sided with Ranasanga in the battle against Babar at Khanwa. Unfortunately
the later rulers of Sirohi proved feeble, and eventually they had to come on
friendly terms with Akbar.
Hada branch of the
Chahmanas established its rule in Bundi in 1241. Its first ruler was Deosingh.
His respective successors were-Rao Samarsingh, Napuji, Virasingh, Narayan,
Surajmal, Surjan etc. Surjan had to surrencer Ranthambhor to the Mughals in
1561 and acept mansabdari. After that, Bundi rule weakened. One of the reasons
was that Shahjahan, by separating Kota from Bundi, had made Rao Ratan's son
Madhosingh the ruler of that, and given mansabdari also. These states of
Haroti remained in existence till India's independence.
Inspite of the adverse
circumstances, Jainism was given adequate patronage in these later Chahmana
States. During this period, many Jain temples were erected and images installed
therein at Sirohi, Abu, Juna, Barmer, Pindwara, Jirawali, Virawara, Pesua,
Makrora etc. At many places, sadhus and Suris advantaged the
laity by their teachings and preachings Amongst them the names of Udaiprabh Suri
and Vijaysen Suri of the Shvetambara sect, Hiravijay Suri of the Tapa
gachcha, and Hiranand Suri of the Pippal gachcha are
specially mentionable. Similarly, in Haroti region also Jainism made its
headway to the level of sufficiency. One Jain businessman of Sagodi named
Krishnadas had organised a grand installation ceremony at Chandkheri (Khanpura)
in 1689 facing all the ebullience of Aurangzeb wrath and anger.
The Jain sadhus
and authors contributed to Jainism in these Chahmana states beyond hope by
writing books (granthas).
Rathod
States
Jodhpur and Bikaner were
main centres in the Rathod states of Rajasthan. In the 13th century, one
Gahadval pince siha of Kanauj of Pali region established Rathod rule in Mondor.
His able successors extended its bounds by their valour and bravery. All
through the 13th century, they had to keep stand with the Surrounding powers.
So doing, some had to sacrifice their lives even in the battlefield. The next
prominent ruler of the Rathods was Jodha (1438-39). He founded Jodhpur in 1459.
His successors proved rulers just in name, but in the time of Maldeo, Jodhpur
regained its vigour. Maldeo was the best amongst all Rathod rulers of Jodhpur.
But his worthless successors accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals. An important
reason for this was their mutual rivalry also they not only remained Mughal mansabdaras,
bu also established matrimonial relations with the Mughals. Durring Aurangzeb's
regime, the Mughal-Rathod relations spoiled; the Rathods challenged the Mughal
power under the able leadership and supervision of Vira (brave) Durgadas
in the 18th century. The Rathods had to constantly encounter the Marathas.
Another chief centre of
the Rathods was Bikaner founded by Bika (1485-1504). Bika Rao was the fifth son
of Jodha. He had founded Bikaner in 1488 and made it his capital. Bika's
successors from the 16th to the 18th century were successively Rao Nar, Rao
Lunakaran, Jaitsingh, kalyanmal, Maharaja Raisingh, Dalapatsingh, sursingh,
Karansingh, Anupsingh etc. Like the Rathod rulers of Jodshpur, those of Bikaner
also maintained warm relations with the Mughals.
Kishangarh in Rajasthan
was another small principality founded by Kishansingh in 1609. This branch was
the outcome of the main Jodhpur branch of Rathods. Like other Rathod states,
ths too had accepted Mughal mansabdari.
The Rathor states of
Rajasthan stood or placed no difficulty or impediment in the progress,
publicity and propaganda of Jainism. During the period under review, many
religious tours used to be in this region by the Bhattarakas Harivijay,
Vijaysen, Vijaydeo, Vijaykushal Sahajsagar of the Tapagachcha, and
Jinachandra, Jinasagar etc. of the Kharatara gachcha. This belt or zone
witnessed the creativity of a Jain poet, Dharmavardhan. As a result of the agoing
cultural activities. many images of the Tirthankaras were installed at Kokind,
Nakoda, Kaparda, Jalor, Merta, Nadol, Maroth, Krishnagarh etc. construction of
some temples worth mentioning could also be possible only this time.
Our discussion would be
incomplete without mentioning the two Jain families of Marwar region. These
were of the Bhandaris and the Mehtas (Muhnots). The Bhandari family originally
belonged to the Chahmana dynasty of Nadol. This Produced persons like Naroji
Samroji, Bhanaji, Raghnath, Khimsi, Vijay, Anupsingh, Pomsingh, Suratram,
Ratansingh in th Oswal Jain tratidion. Similarly, Maharajji, Raichandra,
Vardhman, Krishadas, Askaran, Devichandra, Achloji, Jaimal, Nainsi, Sunderdas,
Kramsi, Bairsi, Samarsi etc. were the prominent figures of the Muhnat decent.
All of them were wise, well disposed, good administrators, and skilled in
financial matters. the most eminent figure was Muhanta Nainsingh, His 'Khyat'
and 'Sarvasanghraha' furnished reliable sources for the reconstruction of contemporary
history. Unfortunately, the Mehta family met a pitiable end. But the services rendered by the Mehata
families to Jain religion and art are still remembered.
The
Bhati Rule of Jaisalmer
Bhati Rajputs founded an
independent kingdom in Jaisalmer in the early decades of the 14th century. The
rule of the first three rulers of Jasalmer, namely Devidas (1462-97).
Jaitrasingh-II (1497-1528) and Lunakaran (1528-1550), has been very conspicuous
from the pont of view of Jainism. Shen Harraj Bhati was the ruler of Jaisalmer,
treaties were signed and matriomonial relations were established with Akbar.
This proved helpful in maintaining cordial relations. The rule of the later
Bhati rulers was one of unrest, revolt, war and anarchy. Even then, Jainism was
very effective in this state in the 17th and the 18th centuries. The Bhati
rulers had regards for acharya Jinasingh, Jinaudai, Jinayukta,
Jinachandra other suris of the Kharatara gachcha. Therefore,
during their reign the Jain community renovated many jain temples and installed
images of the Tirthankaras.
Alwar
State
The Rajputs of Yadu
lineage exerted immense influence in Alwar during the Mughal period. Similarly
the cultural influence of the Kashtha sangha was being had here.
Consequently, many Jain shreshthis form Delhi and Agra carried out
building activities here.
Kachchawaha
Rule In Amer (Jaipur)
In the Dhudhahana belt
of Rajasthan, the Kachchawaha rule was most important from the point of view of
Jainism. One ruler Puranmal of this descent had the title of the Raja of Ambar
from the Mughal emperor Humayun. He had accepted Mughal masabdari and
married one of his daughters to Akbar. His successors were Bhagvandas
(1574-89), Raja Mansingh (1589-1614), Bhausingh (1589-1614), Mahasingh
(1620-22), Mirza Jaisingh (1622-67) and Sawai Jaisingh were among the prominent
rulers of this lineage. Owing to the mutual rivalry and Maratha invasions,
Jaipur state became sufficiently weak after the death of Jaisingh-II.
The Kachchawaha rulers
of Amer were on harmonious terms with the Mughals right from the 16th to the
18th centuries. The posts of prime ministers, treasures and other high posts
were held by many Jain gentlemen. In a sense, the Kachchawaha rulers were
confident enough in handing over administration to them. The names of those who
were completely surrendered to the cuase of Jain religion runthus Nanu Godha,
Mohandas Khandelwal, Ratanchandra Shah, Nandlal, Kanhaiyalal, Devidas
Khandelwal, Kaniram Ved, Tarachand Bilala, Kishordas Mahajan. Remaining on the
high posts, Kasliwal Kesarisingh and Daulatram, Pandya Rao Jagram Mantri
Kriparam, Fatehram, Bhagatram, and ballushah, Vimaldas, Diwan
Ramchandra, Fatechandra, Kishanchandra, Lalchandra, Nainsukh etc. of the
Chchabra families provided glory to Jain caste and religion. As the Bhattarakas
of Chittor came to settle in Amer-Jaipur, the activities of the Bhattaraka sect
became extensive in this area. As a result of this, the number of the followers
of Lalikirti, Devendrakirti, Mahendrakirti, Surendrakirti, Yashkirti etc. the
Bhattarakas of the Mulasangha increased.
Amer, Jaipur, Mojamabad,
Jhunjhunu, Sawai Madhopur, Jabmer, Chatsu etc. had been the chief centres of
Jainism during the rule of the kachchawahas. Taking advantage of the tolerance
and patronage of the Kachchawaha rulers. The Jain community built many Jain
temples at these places and organised idol installation ceremony. Sanghapati
Mallidas, Jeta seth and Sanghvi Kalyandas organized big sangha-yatras.
South
India
South India, esp.
Karnatak, has also been the stronghold of Jainism. During the Maurya period,
Chandragupta Maurya had gone to Shravana Belgola along with his teacher (guru)
Bhadrabahu. There at Chandra Mountain, he had givenup his life. Some believe
that on Bhadrabahu's return to Magadha, the emperor Samprati spread Shraman
culture there. Great Digambara Jain acharya and philosopher
Kundkunda was from South India. The Gagas, the Kadambas, the later Chalukyas,
and the Hoysalas etc. ruling in South India in yore were those royal powers
that enthusiastically supported Jain religion. Under their auspieces, Jainism
propered in South India. Not only this, attempts were also made for the
creation of literature, construction of caves and rock cut temples, erection of
pillars and installation of images.
Now the question is how
and via which way Jainism reached South India. It is obvious that Ashoka and
his successors supported Buddhist and Ajivaka sects in Magadha, and the Shungas
and the Kanvas supported Bhagavat sect. So the Kalinga-king Kharvela supported
Jainism which gradually expanded over almost complete South India through
Andhra and the coastal ranges of Tamilnadu. It is also possible that during the
Mauryan rule, it reached Kuntal region from the route of Avanti Janapada
via Maharashtra and Andhra regions. Congenial climate over there and the royal
patronage led to the prosperity of Jain religion.
In the beginning of the
early mediaeval period, military expedition of the Khiljis, the Tughlaq rule
and the rise of Bahamani Kingdom, indeed, curbed the growth and development of
Jainism in South India, but it could not be faded altogether. It again got
momentum in the Hindu Vijayanagar Kingdom. This kingdom was quite tolerant and
patronizing.
Vijayanagar kingdom was
founded by the, 2 brave brothers of Sangam dynasty-Harihar and Bukka in 1336.
Harihar-I (1336-54), Bukka I (1354-77), Harihar II (1377-1405) and Devrai I
(1404-22) were the first to rule. After Devrai-I's death, Viravijay,
Ramchandra, Devrai II, Mallikarjuna (adult Devrai) and Virupaksha continued to
rule Vijayanagar up to 1485. But excepting Devrai II, all were weak and utter
failure. Therefore, under the supervision of Narsa Nayak, the generals uprooted
Sangam power and made Narsimha of Saluv descent the ruler. Narsimha (1485-90),
and Immadi Narsimha of Saluv dynasty ruled one after the other. His son Vir
Narsimha murdered Immodi Narsimha in 1505, took power in his hand and founded
Tuluv dynasty. Krishnadeo Rai (1505-29) of the Tuluv dynasty was an able, a
great expander of empire, a good administrator and a brave ruler. After him,
Achyutdeo Rai (1529-42) and Sadashiv (1542-72) came to the throne. During their
reign, the power, virtually, remained in the hands of Ram Rai who was able and
brave, but also no less cunning. His activities paved the way for the invasion
of the collective army of the different states of Bahmani over Vijaynagar. The
Battle of Rakshasi Tagadi (Talikot) in 1565 gave place to the ravage of the
capital. This battle has been one of the most fierce and destructive battles of
India. Though vijayanagar empire copntinued to exist for over a century after
this battle, but just to reach the nadir of decline. Sadashiv Went to Penukonda
along with his minister, Tirumal. There he founded the Andavidu Dynasty.
There were many feudal
states connected with Vijaynagar Kingdom. After its fall, many of them became
independent. Chief ones were-Saluv of Sangitpur, Bhairaras of Karkal, Ajil of
Velur, Arsu of Viliker, Pandya of Warkuru, Changalv and odiyar of Mysore
region. Chandravanshi of Gagari, Mula of Bailgari, sawant of Mulki, and Raje of
Vilugi. Similarly, Pregoda, Tuluv, Chamrajnagar, Gerusappe and other regions
wereaso Parading their independent existence. In those dynasties, many eminent
persons ruled. They were very considerate to the Jains, their society,
community and religion. many of their ministers, generals, and official members
were true to Jainism; they followed it strictly.
Along with the rulers,
persons related to them were also the followers of Jainism. The chief queen
Bukkave, queen Sugunidevi, Bhimadevi, princess Devmati, queen Chennabhairav
etc. are remembered in this reference. Rajakulashekhar, Alupendra Deo,
Saluvendra, the ruler of Sangitpur and Indagaras (Immadi Saluvendra), Vira
Pandya Bhairarasa, Gopana and Harihar, odeyar, Naganna Vodeyar, Raja
Perumaldev, Prommideo, the vice rulers, too showed equal enthusiasm and zeal
for Jain religion. Different feaudals, generals, shreshthis, and high
officials contributed to the growth of Jainism to the full. Dandanayak
Vira Baichap, Mangap, Bukkan, Dandesh Iruk, Gund, Jain Mahasenapati
Irugap, Manti Pandnabh, Kuchiraj, Gop Mahaprabhu, Gopach Moop Gop and Kampanna
Gond, Purushottamraj Kamashreshthi, setti Bhayanna seth Busuvi and Gummotanna,
court dancer, Gayi etc. not only helped the cause of the rise of Jainism, but
also completed construction works.
The Digambara amnay
had its swing in South India. The Jain view given by north to south India was
paid back with interest by the South Indian Jain acharyas like
Kundkunda, Madhavsena, and Vishalkirti. The Bhattaraka tradition had its march
from sourth to north. During the later mediaeval period, many munis, pandits,
authors, poets, Suris and Bhattarakas of the South India, re-established
Jainism and unfurledor hoisted its standard therein even under adverse
conditions. Among such religious leaders Hemachandra Bhattaraka's disciple
Telug Adidev, Maladhari Madhavchndra Ramachandra and Keshava, Aluva Mahaprabhu,
muni Bhadradeo Shrutmuni, Charuchandra Pandit, Manikyadeo,
Shrutkirtideo's disciple muni Adideo, Panditdeo Nyayakirti,
Shubhachandra, Nemichandra, Suri Mallinath, Vijayakirtideo, Bhattaraka
Lalitkirti, Dharmabhushan Charuchandra etc. have prominence. One inscription at
Shravana Belagola bearing the date 1373 bears the names of the Bhattaraka
Vasantkirti, Devendrakirti, Vishalkirti, Shubhakirti, Kalikalsarvagya
Bhattaraka Dharmabhushan Amarkirti and muni Vardhaman.
From this point of view,
the role filled in by the Jain poets and authors cannot be underestimated.
Through the medium of their creativity, Simhakirti, Udai bhasha-Chakravarti,
Bhaskar, Kalyankirti, Jinadeo, pandit Bahubali, Keshawavarni, court-poet
Madhur, Abhinav shrutmuni, Chandrakirti, Vijay etc. glorified Jain religion,
philosophy, personages and traditions.
This time, the tendency
to die at self-will had become most popular in South India. This process has
been named Samadhi maran. Ladies like Alamba, Kamigaudi, Ramigaudi,
Kaligaudi, and persons like Bechigauda, Vemmagauda, Mechak, Bhadradeo,
Tammagauda, Chandappa, Payanna, Chandagauda, Siriyanna, Harubgauda Gopan,
Gopgauda, Madukgauda had adopted this very process of Samadhi-maran.
Besides, Vijaynagar,
Kuragahalli, Rabandur, Mulgunda, Shravana Belgola, Hariyawali, Mullura,
Sangitapura, Mudabidri, Karkal, Velur, Bhatkal etc. too have been the important
Jain centres during this period. Many Jain basadis were built, and so
also many Jain temples at the places referred to.
The manastambhas
erected during this period at places like Shravana Belgola, Kambadhalli,
Humacha, Hiriyagarhi, Karkal, Mulki, Mudabidri are still adding beauty to these
places. It is surprising to note that Jainism, born in east (gradually)
received its garb in west and south during the later period. During the later
Maurya and shunga period, the Buddhist, the Ajivaka, and the Vaishnav religion
got much royal patronage in east India, and probably because of this, Jain dharmacharyas
and their adherents had to take asylum elsewhere.
Before the division of
Jainism into the Digambara and the Shvetambara amnay (tradition)
south India had come in contact with Jainism in its pristine form. Thus, south
was fortunate enough to receive undivivided Jain amnay from Mahavira to
the time of Bhadrabahu. And that prospered there the same way. Jain religion in
South India had to play its part in presence of different religious traditions
prevailing over there. so, it stressed more on the philosophical aspect. Just
as the south Indian Brahmana philosophical Schools of Advaita, Vaishistavaita,
Dvaita, Dvaitadvait etc. became the foundation stone for different Brahmana
schools, sects and doctrines in north, the traditions of the Jain Mula sangha,
saraswati gachha, Balatkara gana Nandi sangha, kashtha
sangha, and the Bhattaraka tradition in north also hailed from south and
held sway for over centuries. For years together, the conduct and life of the
people continued to be affected by that. So, the shramana tradition,
which disappeared from east, continued to grow and develop in south. It had
unadulterated protection and patronage there.
Shape/Form
of Later Mediaeval Jainism
In the demographical
structure of India. the percentage of the followers, Jainism is almost nugatory
or the number of Jains is of nano value (using compulingo) or the Jains are
incredibly small in number. But their inborn yen and inquistiveness. kinesis,
creativity business and commerce-capacity, entrepreneurship, administrative
guts, artistic and philosophical aptitude etc. have proved very effective and
telling. Owing to these characteristics of theirs, Jainism could till now
remain an undying force along with its shraman culture, and atheist
philosophy the culmination of which is Anekantvada (non-absolutism in
thought of many sidedness of reality). In one way or the other, it has left an
indelible pring on the sands of history, Despite this, it could not withhold
itself from its opinionative and practical division. Its division into the Digambara
and the Shvetamabara amnays (traditions/sects) was quite apparent as
early as 3rd century before christ.
With the passing of
time, these two traditions got further divided into different sanghas, ganas,
gachchas etc., each having its own traditions and anvays.
The question that stands
to reason is what were the factors working behind. To understand this, we will
have to dive deep into the reality.
There does not seem to
be as much doctrinal or philosophical difference in its branches and scions as
it is in the way of conduct and practice. Laxity in conduct (shithilachara)
seems to have been the most important factor behind the origin of different sanghas
and gachchas.
When some persons or acharyas
(spiritual leaders) tried to make amendments in the existing sangha or
tradition by introducing new code of conduct or anything like that, it was
called laxity of conduct (shithil-a-chara). It is clear that amendments
in Buddhist Hinayana gave birth to Mahayana. And to the former, the latter was
an example of sithilachara in Jain terminology. The conservatives,
therefore, rose in revolt against the radicals. Hence schism in the
church (sangha) became inevitable.
Sometime after there
arose prestige point with regard certain issues among sadhus (monks in
general) acharyas (spiritual leaders) and shravakas (lay votaries). This
too gave rise to different offshoots in Jainism in the form of sanghas gachchas,
ganas. After Jagachhachandra Suri, his two disciples - Vijayachandra Suri
and Devendra Suri of the Tapa gachcha stooe in one another's
teeth.
Then, some controversy among
the followers of a demised acharya in regard to succeeding his patta
also gave rise to schism in the church (sangha). When more than one
claimant came forward to succeedd the vacant patta, the tradition of
that Patta was bound to meet division.
In early mediaeval
period, many Vaishyas and Kshatriyas were ordained to Jainism. They naturally
became the follower of that gachcha which their ordainer belonged to.
Inspite of the teachings
of non-accumulation or non-possession (aparigraha) by Jainism, the followers of
it have been very rich and prosperous. Being comparatively less in number,
religious insistence has been most persistent among the Jains. Many of their
cultural and social acts were confined to their society only. Under these
circumstances, the presence of narrowness in regard to conduct and the show of
pelf in the form of donation has been psychological veracity. The Shravakas'
pride of pelf (wealth), and their ostentatious show to keep up family-fame etc.
have also provided for the division of Jain society into many sects and
sub-sects. To their luck, there have been many such religious gurus who
favoured either this or that group for their own name and fame. This further
speeded up the process of division in the sangha.
Jainism occupies a special
seat for its principles of non-attachment, retirement, renunciation,
self-denial. Its sadhus, whether Digambara or Shvetambara
have been the paradigms of non-accumulation or non-possession (aparigraha),
restraint (sanyam) and church-dis cipline (sangha-anushashan).
This went on for a considerable time. but not for all time to come. The hidden
tendency for reputation and supremacy of the sadhus came to the
forefront as the time passed by. Condition became so crucial that the schism
took place even on minor matters of pinchchi (sweeping duster of peacock
fathers) and langot ( apiece of cloth to cover secret organ).
Worship-methods also helped the cause of division. Temple and sthanak
traditions, drawing their daggers of bitterness at one another, rode roughside
over division. Jainism could not ride itself out from divisions and
sub-divisions. Sects. Sprouted forth from different traditions held by
different sadhus. Many sadhus were enslaved by falsity of purpose
so much that they began to regard it as a part of their religious activities. Chaityavasis
(dwellers in temples) or Bhattarakas were such type of persons.
Those who tried to
effect coordination between two axes (axles) formed a separate group of their
own, instead. Solapanthis furnish an example of those who had tried to
bring about harmony, mutual understanding and coordination between Terepanthis
and Bispanthis. They are known as Totapanthis also.
The different divisions
and sub-divisions, ganas and gachchas etc. present in Jain religion are the
results less of doctrinal and traditional struggle, and more of laxity of
conduct, prestige and ego. Since the original form of Jainism has ben
republican, it could sustain its entity inspite of all adversities the fruits
of which, oft, prove sweet. Its different sects subjected themselves to mutual
invectives, criticism and rejoinder though, its originality could not be
broken. That has been constantly decisive. This doctinal unity of Jainismhas
kept intact its Anekantwada till today. Hence the study of the shape/form of
later mediaeval Jainism is justified.
In early mediaeval
India, a sort of strange transformation or change took place in Jainism. Though
division of Jainism into Shvetambara and Digambara amnays
(traditions) had already occurred long ago. But, that was confined to the
wearing of clothes and purvas (canons), and their reading and redaction (?).
Simplicity of renunciation and non-attachment lingered on even after Mahavira
and ganadharas left this transent world. Religion was not complex. The sadhus,
the Shravakas and Shravikas had full faith in the traditional provision
for panchamahavratas (5 great vows). Laxity in conduct (shithilachara)
had, by and by, started creeping in, yet there was lack of staunchness in Jain
society in the matter of division based on sects. There was constant pressure
of thought on conduct; hence the original philosophico doctrinal perspective
still remained effective.
As Jainism migrated from
its place of genesis to south and west, regional elements or factors or
characteristics bagan to predominate. This had to determine its course through
many non-Jain customs, rituals, and rites (domestic and those of passage).
Bound by the mirage of agams and tantras, Chityavasis (dwellers in
temples) in comparison to Vanavasis (dwellers in forests), and the Bhattaraka
consciousness or awareness in comparison to the original Digambara view
began to find its decisive place in early mediaeval Indian society.
Fortunately, Jain community could save itself from leshyas (different
colours or tints, namely, black, blue, gray fiery red, lotus pink or yellow and
white varying according to the merits or demerits of a particular being) to a
greater extent, but aishna element could no more remain excluded. Aishna
did find its place. Difference between the sadhus and the shravakas
emerged on this issue also. As such, conduct-side predominated over the
thought-side. Mutual scriptural debates began to take place; one community
prided in defeating the dharmacharyas of other community. Moreso, the
defeating party felt more peacocky when it received honours from the rulers and
the administrators in doing so. With a view to attract the people, the sadhus
inspired the process of conversion and false show of grandeur. They became Holy
Willies (dharmadambaris) believing in razz-mtazz (noisy showing activity
intended to attract attention and admiration). Consequently mutual differences
became inevitable.
This presented the
scenario of differences and debates in contemporary Jain religion. Some
believers in non-attributes (nirguna) proved radicals and the
propagators of drastic in puja paddhati (worship-method). Lonkashah and
Taranswami were the inducers and inductors of this new trend. With this
background at our hand, it will not be out of place to give a brief survey of
the different sects and sub-sects of Jainism in early mediaeval period.
The
Digambara Sect
The study of Indian
Jainism has been very wide and complex right from the 13th to the 18th century.
Elaboration of this subject is a time-consuming, and laborious task. And, it is
difficult to say that the work of those scholars, experts and intellectuals who
have burnt their midnight oil for this is ever unmistakable and complete in
totality.
Mediaeval Jainism got
divided into many scions on the basis different groups and sects. According to
Devasen the process of dividing from the Mula Sangha of the sadhus
(original or primary group of the saints) began in the 5th century along with
the establishment of the Dravida Sangha by Vajranandi. Many Digambara, Ganas,
gachchas, or sanghas originated. Chief among them are-the Sen gana,
the Balatkara gana, the Nandi gana the Desi gana, the
Dramis gana, the Kranur gana, the Saraswati gachcha, the Mula sangha,
the nandi sangha, the Mayur sangha, the Kitthur sangha and
the Kulattu sangha.
The
Bhattarak sect
Alienating itself from
the Mula sangha, there started a special tradition from south, viz, the
Bhattaraka tradition. That made its entry mainly into the Digambara (to some
extent, the mediaeval Shvetambara also) ganas and the sanghas.
The Pattavalis of
the Nandi sangha refer to the ancient Bhattaraka tradition. They mention
that after Bhadrabahu (the second) to the beginning of the 12th century,
fiftyone acharyas came one after the other. Actually, this Patta
tradition began from Bhattilpur in south. From the time of the 27th acharya,
Mahakirti, this tradition arrived in Ujjain. In the 11th century, the acharyas
from Lakshmichandra to Lokchandra went to Chanderi from Ujjain, while as the
last 3acharyas- shrutakirti, Bhavachandra and Mahachandra began to adorn
Vidisha patta.
The
Mula Sangha
Some talk on the Mula sangha
does deserve mention in the present context. This seems to have been extant in
4th century in south India. Later on, it developed sufficiently. The Deva Gana,
the Sen gana, the Desiya gana, the Nandi gana, the Surasya
gana the Kranur gana the Balatkara gana, the Saraswati gana
etc. cohered to it. Though, originally a south Indian tradition, it prospered
abundantly in north India also. The south tradition divided into Latur and
Karanja branches, whileas in north, this flourished enough after the 14th
century.
These Bhattarakas,
keeping away from detachment and nomadism, used to live in different monasteries
and temples. wear costly dresses, ornament crowns etc., and were the owners of
big dharmasthalas, pompous residents, and of many acres of land. Sitting
of their pattas (seats) with regal decor, they used to install many
images and yantras. They also claimed to have proficiency in mantra
sidhis (control over spells and occult
powers), and they used to participate in shows and variety-entertanment
also. Exerting their influence on the mind of the populace, they lived in eclat
and induced the mob.
The conservative Jain sadhus
and shravakas were not in consonance with the activities of the
Bhattarakas, because according to them, they were deviating from simplicity,
devotion, asceticism silavratas (3 gunavratas, and 4 shikshavratas)
and mula gunas (primary qualities including avoidance of meat, wine,
honey, fruits, roots, and night-eating) thus falling prey to laxity of conduct.
But nothing could be done. They had gathered enough public-support in their
favour and sizable following by virtue of their name and fame.
Joharapurkar in his book
'Bharraraka Sampradaya' has thrown much light on the Bhattaraka tradition. The
gist of the description of the later mediaeval Bhattaraka tradition given by
him runs thus-
Sen
gana : The main
centre of the Sen gana related to the Panch Stupanvaya, the Rishbha
Senanvaya, the surasya gana, the pogari (pushkar) gachcha etc.
has been Karanja city of Vidarbh region. Maharashtra, karnataka, and Gujarat
provinces have been under the immense influence of this gana. Many of
inscriptional sources include this gana in the Mula sangha.
Shridharsen Devasen. Somasena, Gunabhadra, Maniksen and Somasena, Somasena,
Jinasen, Samantabhadra, Chhatrasen, Narendrasen, Shantisen, Siddhasen etc.
happened to be some of the main Bhattarakas of this gana respectively in
the 14th 15th, 16th, 17th and 18th century. Patta - tradition of the Sen
gana is in prevalence even today.
Balatkara
gana : The initial
sources of the existence of this gana are available to us from the 14th
century. In the 14th century, the Saraswati (Sharda) gachcha originated
from this gana.The early acharyas of this gana in the 13th
century were : Deshnandi and Shravanasen (Knaksen). and after them Vanvasi,
Vasantkirti, Devendra, Vishalkirti, Shubhkirti, Dharmabhushan Amarkirti,
Simhanandi, Dharmabhushan, Vardhman and Dharmabhushan etc. respectively seated
on this patta. The later acharyas had their sway in Vijayanagar
Kingdom.
Later on developed the
karanja and Latur branches of the Blatkara gana.
Karanja
Branch : The first
known acharya of this branch that came into existence in the 16th
century was Amarkirti. His disciples Vadindra Vishalkirti had good influence on
the rulers of Bahamani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms. After this the Bhattarakas of
this patta were respectively Devendrakirti, Dharmachandra, Dharmabhushan
, Devendrakirti, Kukudchandra, Dharmachandra and Dharmabhushan. The last one
remained on the patta upto 1675. One of his disciple Vishalkirti became
the pattadhar of karanja, and from another one Ajitkirti sprang forth
Latur branch. Dharmachandra, Devendrakirti, Dharmachandra, Devendrakirti,
Padmanandi, Devendrakirti and Ratnakirti adorned the karanja patta one
after the other right from the 17th to the 19th century. After him came
Devendrakirti. He was the last of the Bhattarakas of this branch.
Latur
Branch : The tenth
Bhattaraka Ajitkirti of Karanja branch laid the foundation of Latur Branch in
the middle of the 16th century. Ajitkirti's respective successors were:
Vishalkirti, Mahichandra, Mahibhushan, Shantikirti, Kalyankirti, Gunakirti,
Chandrakirti, and Maniknandi.
One more branch of Latur
branch started from 1679 by Vishalkirti, the Bhattaraka of Karanja tradition.
Then came successively - Vidyabhushan, Hemakirti, Ajitkirti etc. This patta
tradition is extant even today.
Later
Balatkara gana branch : Mula sangha has been the oldest sangha of the Diagambara
sect. According to a later tradition, Kundakunda acharya had established
this sangha. pattavalis give credit of its establishment to Maghnandi.
Coming to the 5th century A.D., Mula-sangha had well established in
south and many ganas and gachchas related to this had earned
enough popularity. Especially Nandi sangha, Balatkara gana and
Saraswat gachcha became sufficiently effective and powerful in later
medieaeval India.
So far as the later
mediaeval branch of the Balatkara gana is concerned, the concerning pattavalis
regard it as older if not the oldest one and they provide a list of 77 acharyas
from Guptigupta and Maghnandi to Abhayakirti. Though their historicity is
doubtful, the 78th Bhattaraka Vasantkirti was definitely a historical figure.
Their tradition and known dates have been as follows.
Vasantkirti (1209),
Shubhakirti, Dharmachandra (1214-39), Ratnakirti (1239-53) and Padmanandi
(1253-1397). After Bhattaraka Padmanandi, the gadi or the patta
(seat) was divided among his 3 disciples. The Delhi branch started from
his disciple, Shubhachandra. His Pattadhara was Jinachandra (1450-1514).
One of his disciples, Ratnakirti established Nagaur Branch, and another one,
Simhakirti that of Ater.
Thus, we see that only
one later branch of the Balatkara gana of the Mula sangha
branched into various branches. And the gadi of the acharyas not
only divided but transferred also We find that the gadi of the Mula sangha
was transferred from Baran to Chittor and Baghera, and from there to Ajmer, and
from Three branches of the Bhattaraka Padmanandi's three disciples came into
existence (1) Delhi-Jaipur branch from Shubhachandra, (2) Idar branch
from Sakalkirti, (3) Surat branch from Devendrakirti. Jinachandra
(1450-1514) and Prabhachandra (1514) respectively succeeded Shubhachandra of
Delhi branch. In the time of Prabhachandra, this gadi came from Delhi to
Chittor. His guru bhai (teacher brother), Ratnakirti set up a separate gadi
at Nagaur. Emergence of differences led to further divison. Of course, one
branch shifted to Ajmer and another remained in Nagaur itself. Similarly, in
the time of Prabhachandra's successor Chandrakirti, Chittor gadi shifted
to Chatsu. After this, it shifted respectively to Sanganer, Anwa, Amer and
finally to Jaipur.
With a view to provide
completeness to the above discussion, it will be quite justified to supply a
list of the Bhattarakas of different disciplines.
Delhi-Jaipur
Branch :
Padmanandi's disciple Shubhachandra (1393-1450), Jinachandra (1450-1514),
Prabhachandra (1514-23) in whose time this branch went to Chittor, Chandrakirti
(branch went to Chatsu), Devendrakirti (1606), Narendrakirti (1634),
Surendrakirti (1665), Jagatkirti (1676), Devendrakirti (the Second),
Mahendrakirti (1733) in whose time the Bhattaraka pitha went to
Amer-Jaipur, Kshemendrakirti (1758), Surendrakirti, the second 1765), and
Sukhendrakirti)1.
Nagaur
Branch :
Jinachandra (1450-1514), Ratnakirti (1524), Bhuwankirti (1529), Dharmakirti
(1533), Vishalkirti), (1544) Lakshmichandra (1554), Sahastrakirti (1574),
Nemichandra (1593), Yashkirti (1615), Bhanukirti (1633), Shribhushan (1648),
Dharmachandra (1655), Devendrakirti (1670), Surendrakirti (1681) and Ratnakirti
(1688) were some of the chief Bhattarakas of Nagaur branch.
Idar
Branch :
Padmanandi, Sakalkirti (1393-1453), Bhuwankirti (1451-70) Jnanbhushan
(1477-1503) in whose time Jnankirti established a separate seat at Bhanpura,
Vijakirti (1500-1511), Shubhachandra (1516-1556), Sumatikirti (1565-68),
Gunakirti (1574-82), Vadibhushan(1595-99), Ramakirti (1600-25), Padmanandi
(1626-45), Devendrakirti (1656-68), Kshemakirti (1677), Narendrakirti (1705),
Vijayakirti, and Nemichandra2 were the prominent figures of gdar
branch.
The
Ater Branch : The
Ater branch originated from Simhakirti (1463-74), a disciple of Bhattaraka
Jinachandra. Then those seated after him on this patta (upto 18th
century) respectively were the Bhattarakss - Dharmakirti, Shilabhushan Jnanabhushan,
Jagatbhushan, Vishvabhushan, Devendrabhushan, Surendrabhushan and Lakshmi
bhushan.
The
Surat Branch :
Bhattaraka Padmanandi's disciple Devendrakirti started this branch. After him
this branch divided. The chief pattadharas of the main branch upto 18th
century were respectively - Vidyanandi, Mallibhushan and Lakshmichandra,
Virachandra Jnanabhushan, Prabhachandra, Vadichandra, Mahichandra, Meruchandra
Jinachandra, Vidyanandi, Devendrakirti, Vidyabhushan, and Dharmachandra.
The
Jerhat Branch :
This branch was established in about 1495 by Tribhuwanakirti, a disciple of
Devendrakirti, the Pattadhisha of the Surat branch. Then, respective Pattadhishas
adorning this patta were - Sahastrakirti, padmanandi, Yeshahakirti, and
Lalitkirti. After Lalitakirti, his chief disciple Dharmakirti (1588-1623) took
possession of the original (Mula) gadi. His respective successors
were - Padmakirti, Sakalakirti, and Surendrakirti, Another disciple Ratnakirti
founded a sub-branch which declined after Chandrakirti (1618-24). Even,
otherwise, we do not find any trace of the existence of the Jerhat branch after
17th century.
The
Kashtha Sangha : In
the Digambara Bhattaraka tradition, the Kashtha sangha seems to have had
sufficient mobility like the Mula sangha. The credit of founding this sangha
in Nandiyad (modern Nander) in south India in the last decade of the 7th
century goes to acharya Kumarasena. It is a strange coincidence that the
name of this sangha got associated with the name of a village, Kashtha
near Delhi. Originally, the Kashtha sangha was not the name of this sangha.
The mentionable among those sanghas and gachchas which prospered
in the Digambara amnay during early mediaeval period are - Mathur,
Vagada, Lada Vagada (Lata Vargata), Nanditata etc. Along with the time, these sanghas
and gachchas came together and got merged into the original big Kashtha sangha
of course, keeping their independent names secure. The Punnata sangha of
south affected north to some extent because we find its mention in an image
inscription of the 12th century in Badnawar (Vardhmanpur) of Malwa. It seems,
this sangha also gradually lost its separate entity in favour of the Kastha
sangha. Thus in the kashtha sangha the names of Mathur the Ladwangarh
and the Nanditat gachcha, and the pushkar gana also came to be
reckoned. The list of the Bhattrakas of the later mediaeval period of these gachchas
runs thus.
The
Mathur Gachcha :
The Bhattarakas from the 12th to the beginning of the 14th century were
Madhavasena, Uddharasena, Dev'sena, Vimalsena, Dharmasena, Dhavasena and
Sahastrakirti. Then we have the names of the Bhattarakas Gunakirti,
Yashahakirti, Malayakirti, Gunachandra, Bhanukirti and Kumarsen who lived in
15th and 16th century.
The Bhattaraka tradition
of this gachcha that started from Vijayasena, a disciple of Madhavasena
and a teacher-brother of Uddharasena lingered on upto 15th century and the
chief Pattadharas were - Nayasen, Shreyansasen, Anantakirti,
Kamalakirti, Kshemakirti, Hemakirti, Kamalakirti (1449-53), Kumarasena and
Hemachandra. In the 16th century after Hemachandra came-Padmanandi,
Yashahakirti, Kshemachandra and Tribhuwanakirti. Those who occupied this patta
in the 17th and 18th century were respectively- Sahastrakirti, Mahichandra,
Devendrakirti, Jagatakirti etc. This patta exists even today.
In the later 16th
century, the tradition started by Gunachandra, the teacher-brother (guru-bhai)
of the Bhattaraka Kshemakirti was shorted-lived. After him only Sakalachandra
and Mahendrasen became the Bhattarakas. That was all.
The
Ladwa Gachcha : By
the later mediaeval period, the punnata and the Vagada gachchas merged
in this gachcha. This gachch was founded by Jayasen in th 8th
century. That continued to be upto the end of the 15th century. The later
mediaeval Bhattarakas of this gachcha were - Mahendrasen, Anantakirti,
Vijayasen, Chitrasen, Padmasen, Tribhuwanakirti, Dharmakirti, Malayakirti,
Narendrakirti, Pratapkirti, and Tribhuwanakirti.
The
Nanditata Gachcha :
The orderly Bhattaraka tradition of this gachcha is available to us from
the 15th century. The respective Bhattarakas who occupied the original (Mula)
Patta of Lakshmisen (the pattadhara of the Bhattaraka Ratnakirti)
upto the end of the 17th century were - Bhimasena, Sonakirti - Bhimasena,
Vijayasena, Yashahakirti, Udaisena, Tribhuwanakirti, Ratnabhushan, Jaikirti,
Keshavasena and Vishwakirti.
The Bhattaraka tradition
of the Bhattaraka Lakshmisena's disciple Dharmasena existed upto early 19th
century. His respective successors were - Vimalasena, Vishalakirti, Vishwasena
and Vidyabhushan, Shribhushan, Chandrakirti, Rajakirti, Lakshmisena,
Indrabhushan, Surendrakirti etc. After the last mentioned bhattaraka, the gadi
was divided into 3 of his disciples - Lakshmisena, Sakalakirti and
Devendrakirti.
This list of the various
Bhattaraka tradition is not the last one. Our knowledge of the Bhattarakas of
the later mediaeval period of Vidisha, Chanderi, Sojitra etc. is very little.
But many literary and epigraphical sources speak eloquently about some of the
Digambara Bhattarakas of these places. We also have references to the fact that
many disciples of the Bhattarakas grew ambitious of their pattas and, an
such, they set up their own gadis. But these gadis proved
short-lived for want of support, and prop.
Whatsoever the condition
might be, the Bhattaraka tradition/sect influenced Jain community of south,
west and central and north India a lot. Inspite of the political, geographical
and doctrinal differences, in Karnataka, Andhra, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya
Bharat, Rajasthan, Bundelkhand, Delhi, etc. the existence of the Bhattaraka
tradition made itself felt. It was the result of this that many scriptures (granthas)
were written, many Bhattarakas and dharmacharyas were honoured many
temples were built, and images of the Tirthankaras and Yaksha-Yakshis
were built in thousands. Written literature, and image inscriptions reveal
different aspects of the then social, political and cultural life.
The Bhattaraka sect has
been carped at by the Jain and the non-Jain community. This carping aims at
showing that this has tried to impose royalty over asceticism, possession or
accumulation over non-possession or non-accumulation, discipleship over
non-discipleship, attachment over detachment. May be, this criticism is
justified, but the role of the Bhattarakas cannot be denied or overlooked. The
Bhattarakas of the later mediaeval period were playing and important part
amongst the Bahamanis in south, and in many regions of Malwa, Gujarat, Delhi
and Rajasthan. The Jain faith dismantling or downing before Islam had to be
kept intact somehow or the other. The total patronage of diffetent Hindu royal
powers was also inevitable for them. Therefore, they thought it better to
deviate (a little or completely) from the traditional faith and live at a
particular place and establish a patta over there, to have the power of
controlling spells and secret lorest, to do still more new experiment in
religious life, to give and impetus to music and art, and to have resort to royal
grandeur for popularizing the dying faith. By the later mediaeval period, the
challenges coming before the Jain world began to him, and so also the influence
of the Bhattarakas day by day.
Besides, many more
reasons were there for the fall of the Bhattaraka tradition. Though the
traditional ascetic-class had, for sometime, become helpless and passive, it
was tortured and sad from within. The traditional sadhus (ascetics or
monks) were anxious to revive the glory that was Jainism. Amongst them were both
the idol-worshippers and the non-worshippers of idols. The Taranapanth or
Sammaiya panth founded by Taranswami against idol-worship proved very
opposing and revolting. This panth (sect) stressed on the shapless
non-attributive) shape of shuddhatma (the pure self or soul), and put a
mark of interrogation on the luxurious and splendid life of the Bhattarakas. To
save the Bhattaraka traditions from the arrows and slings of outrageous
criticism of the Taranpanthis, a new sect called Vishwa-Pantha or Bis-panth
had to be born. But the decline of the Bhattaraka sect became more apparent
when the Vidhimargis arose in open feud or enmity. This was a sect of
idol-worshippers that stood in the teeth of the practices adopted and followed
by the Bis-panthis. The Terapanth, born in the 17th century,
proved more aggressive in this regard. This panth was founded by
Amarchand in Sanganer (Rajasthan). The most influential personality of all the
followers of this panth was Banarsidas whose rare impact in the cultural
and political field has already been discussed in the foregoing pages. The
thirteen sutras (or formularies) propounded by him proved to be
foundation stone of this panth. This Tera-panth was absolutely
defferent from that of the Shvetambara Terapanth.
In the 18th century, one
more new panth (sect) was founded in Jaipur by Gumaniram. This is known
as Gumani-Panth or Shuddha-amnay (Pure-tradition). This sect does
not have as much faith in bhava puja (idol worship) or simply in idols.
In order to bring about coordination between the Bis-panthis and the Tera-panthis
in Rajasthan itself, one more panth or sect called solaha or Tota
pantha was brought into existence. But being non-acceptable to both, it
could not survive for long.
Surprisingly enoug, the
entire Shvetambara sect was opposed to the Bhattaraka tradition, but even then
it could not refrain itself from being attracted by it. Many Shvetambara acharyas
began to assume the title of Bhattaraka.
However, under the
prevalent circumstances, the Bhattaraka sect gradually declined and became
moribund. Though, at some places, the Bhattaraka-gadis still exist which
are, now, just a secondary and only a mini edition of a long great tradition.
The
Shvetambara sect
The Shvetambara sect gave
an introduction to its rare capacity and efficiency during mediaeval period in
Jain-world. Its speed continued to be fast right from the 8th to the 18th
century. Gujarat, Rajasthan and Malwa remained main centres of the Shvetambara
sect during the period under review. Even then to our dismay, it could not
present and organised and a disciplined perspective. The dividing lines that
mad their preliminary appearance during early mediaeval period not only became
prominent this time, but they immensely contributed to the formation fo
different gachchas. The traditional 84 gachchas as given in the Pattavalis
still remained more or less in the same number. Of course, some old names
dropped, and new ones added. But sometimes, the number reached even 100. And this
number is exclusive of many disappeared and short-lived gachchas.
Naming of various gachchas
was based on some event or ascribed title, suri of acharya, some
particular place or coincidence. We have inscriptional evidences of the
existence of some important gachchas (of 10th to 13th century) like Vata
(later on Brihad), Kharatara, Upakesha (Ukesha), Sander (Sanderaka) Purnimiya,
Agam, Malladhari, Brahamana, Nivritti, Tapa (Laghu and Brihad) Vayat, Dhara,
Chandra, Yashaha suri, Bhavadeva, Bhavaharsha, Dhaneshwara, Kamyaka, Oswal,
Brahmi, Devabhidita, Pippal, Amradeva, Bhartari, Jalvayadhara, Vatapiya,
Arasana, Kasahrida etc. Some other gachchas also existed.
The names of the many
Shevatambara gachchas extant between 13th and 16th century are available
to us from epigraphical and literary sources. They are as follows —
Brihad, Brihad
Paushadha, laghu Paushadha, kharatara, Anchala, Upakesha, Krishnarshi, Komala,
Chchadayatha, Korant, Kachcholi, Chaitra, Jirapalli (Jiraula), Thirapadriya,
Dharmaghosha, Nagendra, Nigama, Nivritti, Pippal, Brahmana, Bhawadara,
Madahada, Malladhari, Vimala, Sanderaka, Saraswati, Siddhanti, Chitrapalliya,
Chitrawada, Chchahitra, Jakhariya, Jalohariya, Dekatriya, Dwivandanika Nagara,
Nagori Nanakiya (Jnanakiya Tawakiya), Nanawala, Palli (Pali, Pollivala,
Palikiya) Kashahrida, Pippala1, Bonkadiya, Bhinamala, Raja, Ramasaneyi,
Rudrapaliya, Vidyadhara, Vritrona, Dharayadriya Sitara, Suvihita, Sudharma,
Harshapuriya, Harija, Devacharya, Prabhakara, Vyovasimha, Hummada, Jnakappa,
Nagapuriya, Chandra, Hastikundi, Bharatapuriya, Ratanapuriya, Japadana,
Tawadara, Vatapiya, Sarawala, Chandhala, Praya, Kasahrida etc. Many of them
either lost their existence altogether or merged into some other gachchas.
Later on, some new gachchas emerged out of which Kadua tenet, and Vijaya gachcha
deserve mention.
It seems that the
process of the rise and fall of the gachchas has been most fast and
speedy in Marwar, esp. in Sirohi region. Jaipur, Haroti, Mewar and malwa
regions also more or less followed their suit. In later mediaeval period, there
was a sort of effective competition in the Tapa and the Kharatara
gachcha of Gujarat. As a matter of fact, entire, Shvetambara world moved
round the axis of these2 gachchas. Many of the above mentioned gachchas,
probably, were related to them only, but nothing definite can be said about
this for lack of valid and credible proofs.
Now the question that
strikes to us is that why Gujarat and Rajasthan alone remained not only the
sheer patrons of Jain religion but its enthusiastic propagators also. It has
already been seen that with the passing away of time, Jainism migrated from its
birth place to south and west. The Rajaput dynasties of Rajasthan and Gujarat
gave enough patronage to Jainism afer 6th century A.D. It seems odd that the
war and violence loving Rajputs patronized Jainism. Why?. The reasons there of
seems to be many. By virtue of their simplicity and aptitude of detachment and
renunciation, and non-violent life style, the Jain dharmacharyas
influenced and impressed the contemporary rulers a lot. The followers of
Jainism were normally businessmen who had a wonderful skill of earning riches,
and the habit of amassment and accumulation. Hence, this class remained wealthy
but frugal with an inclination towards religion. The rulers, the feudals and
ignored ones and the poor all looked to them for their cooperation and credit
and loan facilities. Because of this, they continued to receive favours from
the Hindu kings/rulers. This further resulted in the conversion of Vaishnava
creditors and Shaiva Rajputs to Jainism. And the Shvetambara sect showed its
zeal to assimilate many of their elements and attributes. Therefore, this sect
spread more in west India in comparison to the Digambara sect.
Since a good number of people
from the Hindu fold adopted Jain religion, Jainism could get many expert
financiers and able administrators. By dint of their wisdom, intellect,
manysided view, miscellaneous knowledge, and eloquence, the Jains could easily
get the posts of ministers, generals, treasurers, store-keepers, advisers and
assayers of metals and ninerals during the regime and reign of different
rulers. On account of this, while they could succeed in amassing much wealth on
the one hand, they also stood triumphant in the execution of expensive
religious activities and in giving shape to unique and wonderful
construction-works.
But the entry of new
outer elements into Jainism paved way for its deformation, disparagement and
depravations. Laxity of conduct became routine. Even traditional Jain religion
could not protect itself much by opposing the then prevailing incongenial
climate. Seeing the grandeur of the Bhattaraka sect of the Digambaras, the
Shvetambaras also grew restless. The recluses of the forest were dragged behind
and the Chityavasis enjoying all mundane pleasures took the reigning power into
confidence.
The Chaityavasi
tradition originated in the Shvetambara sect the same way as did the Bhattaraka
sect. The Shramanas inclined towards laxity in conduct (shithilachara)
can be held responsible for establishing this tradition. The Chaityavasi sangha
was established in V.S. 820 (Vira Nirvana Samvat). The shramana-shramani
class or order of the Chaityavasi Sangha came to be known as Chityavasi.
The Chaityavasi sadhus abandoned Viharas as their residences, and
began to live permanetly in chaityas. The sadhus, receiving money
from the devotees, built up their own temples. Therein they had their own
kitchens from where they took the traditionally prohibited diet. Thus started
deviation from the traditios and scriptural agams (canons). Gradually,
the Chaityavasi tradition became very popular, and it spread far and wide,
especially in west Indian reign.
As such the suris and
the acharyas could not keep mum for long. During early mediaeval period,
Deva Suri, Nemichandra Suri, Udyotana suri, Vardhmana Suri,
Buddhisagara Suri and most influential Jinachandra Suri in
Gujarat, and Haribhadra Suri and Jinavallabha Suri etc. in
Rajasthan respectively set up the Vidhimarga once again by defeating
Chaityavasis in the light of their eloquence, wisdom, knowledge and
intellectual brilliance. And thus they brought back the original strength of
Jainism.
Nevertheless, some of
the gachchas still remained Under the influence of the Chaityavasis. Among
these, the Sandera gachcha was the one that spread extensively in
Kathiwar and Rajasthan, especially, in Mewar region between 14th and 16th
century. Acharya Yasodeva Suri had established this gachcha
in Sandera of Rajasthan. Similarly, the Raja gachcha tradition started
from a detached ruler Nanna Sur of Talawada. That immediately merged into that
of Vanavsis.
Thought it is not
possible to give a description of all the gachchas and their acharyas
in this monagraph, it seems to be necessary to give a brief description of the
activities of the Tapa gachcha and the Kharatara gachcha of the
later medieval period.
The Tapa
Gachcha :
The traditions of the Tapa gachcha
have hardly got anything to owe to later mediaeval branch or sub-branch; they
are, actually, the developed form of the original Jain tradition. It is just a
coincidence that being influenced by 12 yearly ascetic practices of the acharya,
Jagachchandra suri, Maharawal Jaitrasingh of Mewar bestowed on him the
epithet 'Mahatapa', and hence this came to be known as the Tapa gachcha.
Later on, a larger section of the Vatagachcha started by a
teacher-brother (guru bhai) of Jagachchandra got affilianted to this gachcha.
Matter-of-factness is
that there has been an important and unbroken tradition of acharyas in
the tradition of the Tapa gachcha. The Primal guru, according to Pattavalis
was Mahavira and other gurus who went on ascending his patta came to be
known as pattadhari. Different pattavalis give their description also
mention about the different sects, sub-sects, ganas, gachchas and Kulas
of the Tapa gachcha.
After Jagachhandra Suri,
there came a decisive turn in the traditions of the Tapa gachcha. One of
his 2 disciples, Shri Devendra Suri continued to behave in a precendet
way, whileas his teacher-brother (guru-bhai) took certain liberaties. As
a result, the Tapa gachcha divided. The tradition of Devendra Suri was
called Laghu Paushadh Shalik whileas that of Vijayachandra Suri was
called Vrihad Paushadh Shalik branch.
According to Pattavalis,
the acharyas of the Laghu-Paushadh Shalik after Devendra Suri
were respectively-Vidyananda Suri, Dharmaghosha Suri, Somaprabha Suri,
Muni Sunder Suri, Ratnashekhara Suri, Lakshmisagara Suri,
Sumatisadhu Suri, Hemavimala Suri, Anandavimala Suri,
Vijayadana Suri, Hiravijaya Suri, Vijayasena Suri, Vijayadeva Suri,
Vijayasingh Suri and Vijayaprabha Suri.
Those who came after
Vijayachandra Suri upto 18th century in Vrihad Paushad Shalik branch
were respectively - Kshemakirti Suri, Hemakalash Suri, Ratnakara Suri,
Ratnaprabha Suri, Munishekhara Suri, Dharmadeva Suri,
Jnanachandra Suri, Abhayasingh Suri, Jagatatilaka Suri,
Ratnasingh Suri, Udaivallabha Suri, Jnanasagara Suri,
Udaisagra Suri, Labdhisagara Suri, Dharmaratna Suri,
Amararatna Suri and Kalyanaratna Suri.
There started a separted
tradition in the Laghu Paushadh Shalik at the hands of Somadeva Suri, a
disciple of Lakshmisagara Suri. This branch came to be known as
Kamalakalasha branch also after the name of Kamalakalasha, one of the acharyas
of this branch. Many inscriptional evidences of the acharyas of this
branch are available.
The most important and
reputed name of the acharya of this branch is Hiravijaya Suri. He
was a contemporary of the great Mughal emperor, Akbar. The available
inscription let us know that Tapa gachcha was propagated far and wide by
his near disciples, Suris and ganis. From the epigraphs, it is
known that the Mughal emperors adorned Hiravijaya Suri with the title of
Jagadaguru, and his Hiravijaya Suri's) pattadhara Bhattaraka Vijayadeva Suri
was given the epithet - 'Jahangiri Mahatapa'.
Many references to the
different branches of the Tapa-gachcha are available to us from the pattavalis
and the image inscriptions. These branches are : Nagapuriya Parshvanatha gachcha,
Satyaya gachcha, Dharmaghosha gachcha, Agamika (Agam) gachcha,
Purnimiya gachcha1 etc. The Nagendra gachcha
and the Malladhari gachcha, started respectively by the acharyas
Nagendra and Malldhari also deserve mention in this respect.
Vrihad Tapa Gachcha
could not be saved from sub-divisions, as is evident form references to the
Ratnakara gachcha founded by an acharya Ratnakara Suri
originally belonging to the Original branch.
The Achala gachcha
originated from the Vrihad gachcha founded by the famous acharya
Udyotana Suri's disciple. The instance gachcha was very much popular in
kachcha, Gujarat and malwa. One peculiar feture brought to light is that some
later mediaeval acharyas began to assume the title of Bhattaraka like
the Digambara acharyas.
The
Kharatara Gachcha :
The Kharatara gachcha
occupies an important place in the Shvetambrara tradition. The literal meaning
of the word 'Kharatara' is very sharp, powerful, full of momentum, splendid or
glorious.
There is enough
difference in the lists of the names of the acharyas of this gachcha
as given in different pattavalis. But in all pattavalis, the name
of the acharya Jineshwara Suri is held in high esteem and great
honour. Since the acharyas defeated Chaityavasis in shastras
in the court of Chaulukya king Durlabharaja of Gujarat, they were endowed with
the epithet 'Kharatara', and their gachcha came to be known as the
Kharatara gachcha of the Shvetambara sect. Gradually, this gachcha
made its impact felt in Sindh, Rajasthan, Malwa and Delhi regions. The later
mediaeval Kharatara acharyas, who adorned the Kharatara patta
from the 13th to the 18th century were respectively - Jinapati Suri,
Jineshwara Suri-II, Jinaprobodha Suri Jinachandra Suri,
Jinakushala Suri, Jinapadma suri, Jinalabdhi Suri,
Jinachandra Suri, Jinodaya Suri, Jinaraja Suri, Jinabhadra
Suri, Jinasamudra Suir, Jinahansa Suri, Jinamanikya Suri,
Jinachandra Suri, Jinasimha Suri, Jinaraja Suri, Jinaratna Suri,
Jinachandra Suri, Jinasukha Suri, Jinabhaksti Suri,
Jinavallabha Suri, Jinachandra Suri, Jinaharsha Suri, Jinasobhagya Suri,
Jinahansa Suri. Mughal emperors Akbar and Jahangir had close and
intimate relations with Jinachandra Suri and Jinasimha Suri.
With the passage of
time, this gachcha also divided into several branches. Jinavallabha Suri
founded Madhukara Kharatara branch in 1110, Jai Shekhar Suri founded
Rudrapalliya Kharatara branch in 1112, Jinasimha Suri founded Laghu
Kharatara branch in 1274, Jineshwara Suri founded Vaikata Kharatara
branch in 1365, Jinavardhana Suri founded Pippalaka Kharatara branch in
1404, Shantisagara Suri founded Acharyayiya Kharatara branch in 1507,
Bhavaharsha founded Bhavaharshiya Kharatara branch in 1555. Similarly, Laghu
Acharyayiya, Rangavijaya, Sariya branches of the Kharatara gachcha were
founded respectively by Jinasagara Suri in 1629, Rangavijaya gani
in 1643, and Upadhyaya sara. Acharya Mahendrakirti is also credited with the
establishment of a sub-branch at Mandovara in 1835. Besides, the inscriptions
speak of the establishment of Sadhu branch by Jinachandra Suri, Manikya Suri
branch, Kshemakirti branch, Jinaranga Suri branch and also of these Kulas
and ganas. Chandra Kula of the Kharatara gachcha, Nandi gana
of the Kharatara gachchas. These are also spoken of Vardhamanaswami anvaya,
Jinavardhana Suri branch and Rangavijaya branch.
Several acharyas of this
gachcha installed many images and created vast literature. Many inscriptions
are found in different parts of Rajasthan attest to this fact. However, this
reamined more popular in Jaisalmer and west Rajasthan. At present, Bikaner and
japiur have gadis of this. The
epigraphical evidences of this gachcha are available to us from 1090.
The acharyas,
authors, poets, shravakas, and shravikas rendered wonderful
services to the Kharatara gachcha. Literature produced by them all is
not only vast, but deep too, this has its own dimensions. These contributors
did not lag behind in building activities. Over and above all this, the acharyas
of this gachcha with their wonderful capacity of propagation and
digestion converted and ordained hundreds and thousands of non-Jains,
especially, Kshatriyas, thus increasing Jain population beyond imagination.
Others may well emulate them.
The Lonka
Panhta :
It has already been seen that one
Sirohi resident, Lonkashah1 while transcribing Jain agamas
(canons) in the upashraya of Yali Jnanashri found no mention of
idol worship and hence he stood in opposition to that form of worship as
prevalent then in the Shvetambara sect.1 On canonical ground, he founded his
own separate sect in 1451 called Lonka Pantha. This Pantha
bitterly opposed installation and worship of images and emphasised on inner
realization. Under the given circumstances Lonkashah got success beyond
expectations2. In a sense martin Luther can be
compared with him. Lonkashah presented 31 point doctrinal side along with its
canonical interpretation. But, inspite of thick following, it could not save
itself from division. In the time of the eighth Pattadhara of this sect,
this was divided into Gujarati and Nagori sects. In the 16th century, the
former got itself further sub-divided into two and the later into 3 branches.
In the Lonka pantha
also laxity of conduct creeped as it did among the Chaityavasis. Hence, one
influential follower of the Lonka Pantha, Lawaji with his 2 disciples
started Dandiya Pantha which later on became famous as Sthanaka marga.
This too had no faith in idol-worship. This event is of 1657.
One Dharmadasa got self
ordained in the acharya tradition of this patta. His 99
disciples, later on, divided into 22 tolas (branches/Sects). Hence, this came
to be known as Bawisa sect or Bais Tola. These tolas were Lalchand Tola,
Dhanaji Tola, Manaji Tola, Prithaji Tola, Balchand Tola,
Lohodo Pithaji Tola, Ramachandra Tola, Mulachand Tola,
Tarachand Tola, Khemaji Tola, Pandarathji Tola, Khemaji Tola,
Tolokji Tola, Padarathji Tola, Bhanadas Tola, Parasram Tola,
Bhawanidas Tola, Mukutram Tola, Manohar Tola, Samidas Tola,
Sagji Tola, and Samrath Tola.
As the time rolled by,
many more divisions branched off from the Sthanakavasis and the Tolas.
For example, we know that Raghunath, Jaimal, Ratanchandra, Chauthmal sects
sprouted from Dhanaji tola. Similarly, other tolas also got
divided into many sects. In Rajasthan, Sthanakavasi sect became very popular in
the 17th and the 18th century. Many sthanakas and upashrayas were
built.
One acharya of
the Raghunath sect, Bhikhana founded an independent sect of his own in 1760.
This came to be known as Tara Pantha. According to Bhikhana 13 included
5 mahavratas (great vows)1, 5 samitis (5 Kinds of vigilance
over behavious)2 and 3 guptis (i.e.
protection of mind, speech, and action). This pantha too was a non-believer in
idol-worship. This sect spread much in Mewar and Marwar regions in the 18th
century.
The Lonka Pantha
too did not go alright. Muni Bija (Vijaya) of this gachcha
Propounded Bija doctrine in 1513. This favoured image worship. Similarly, Kadua
Shah, a nagar shravaka of Nadlai formed his Kadua samgha (group)
in 1466 laying stress on image-worship and givind prominence to the shravaka
class. This was in existence in Gujarat upto the 16th century.
It seems, Lonka
tradition was influenced on the one hand by the Gujarati Vedantists who believed
in non-attributive or nirguna feature of the God. and by iconoclastic
Islami monotheism on the other. Whatever might have been the condition, this pantha
made the shaking position of image-worship stationary. This held Jain belief
intact despite all odds, esp. those raised by Islam invaders who believed in
iconoclasm.
Epilogue
Later mediaeval Jainism
contributed a lot to the cultural, social, literary, administrative field and
also that of art of India.
A cursory glance over Jainism
makes us aware of its extensive, huge and wide social background which was,
more or less, an outcome of religious conversion' it also makes us see its
religious background that was divided to extremity. It was divided into
shvetambara and Digambara, conservative and liberal sects, and into
idol-worshippers and non-idol-worshippers, into mandir margis and sthanaka
margis, and into the groups of those who believed in status quo and who did
not. There were non-liberals ans revolutionaries. Thus, Jain society was
divided into many branches and sub-branches. At the top, metaphysics and
philosophical abstruseness did maintain its position, but this age did not
produce scholars like Kundakundacharya, Umaswati (Umaswami, and Haribhadra Suri.
No doubt, we do have long and exhaustive lists of acharyas, Suris,
Bhattarkas, Yatis, ganis, Upadhyayas, but this time the
exponents of syadavada (doctrine of 'may be') and anekantavada
(doctrine of non-absolutism) were entangled in mutual differences, and the
defeat of one by the other in canonical debates was their prestige-issue. They
liked to walk on the golden crutches of those shreshthis who managed and
organized sangha-yatras on their instructions, and regarded repairs of dharma
sthalas, erection of stambha (pillars) and installation of images as
a part of their religious duty. The Bhattarakas and their followers had made
themselves an epitome of material and mundane comforts, and glaring miracles.
They led luxurious life in a feudal fashion, and cared a fig for non-violence.
Post and prestige was the only milestone of the lives of the acharyas
and the sadhus. Conferment of titles by the kings, rulers, emperors and
Sultans mattered most to them, and the spiritual and philosophical tenets of
Jainism the least. They were most concerned about theri political and social
acceptance.
Besides all this, their
importance and impact cannot be denied. They kept the flag of Jainism hoisted
by their religious rituals. Many of them authored a number of books, and
inspired their followers also in this pursuit. Resultantly, literature in the
form of legends, charitas, poetics. memoirs, travelogues etc. was
created so abundantly that even a voluminous and comprehensive book on its
review or critique would be just insufficient. Attempts to protect old
manuscriptsand to their transcription were just wonderful. The Jain scholars
wielded their master-pan masterly in the field of grammar, laxicographies,
dialectics poetics, shilpa-shastras, metallurgy, and medicine. These admirable
attempts could, however, save Jain society and its vital part from being
damaged beyond repairs. Jain view could remain woth grasping and following.
Many published works and different shastra-bhandaras (libraries of the
canons) and the protected manuscripts testify this fact. This will have to be
accepted that the originality of literary and cultural creation could, somehow
or the other, be kept intact and unpolluted. Tendency to look into the past
became more and more prominent. But its reaction to contemporary set-up left
all the rivals behind.
During this period, Jain
society paraded its richness, prosperity, and high-level intelligence.
Consequent upon this, the Rajput states of north and west India, Hindu powers
of south and to some extent, the followers of Islam were kept hypnotised by
them; and they also proved their inevitablity. As such they were made
ministers, treasures, stone-testers, generals, city shreshthis (nobles).
Not only this, they were appointed to many other important posts. Indeed, they
also succeeded in writing the golden history of their political knack,
administrative skill, cultural decency, social prestige, economic and fiscal
efficiency. It seems, it was because of this that the rulers kept them in
forefront on many fronts. As soon as they got rid of their helplessness or
became free from their dependence on them and got hold of other better
alternatives, they did by cruelly with sangramsingh Soni and Muhanta Nainasi;
they immediately side tracked them Without any hitch or hesitation.
During the period under
review, Jains held monopoly over business, trade and commerce and over
credit-system, but much alertness was practised in the expenditure of the
income. Despite their valuable garbs, towering and magnificent mansions Jains
practised shila (restrain) fasts, self-mortification and simplicity. All
of their activities were simple, sans pomp and show and grandeur.
Truly, rich Jain shreshthis,
traders, and officials spent very little on that common man, esp., non-Jain
from whom they earned a lot. Contrarily, they expended profusely on religious
deeds, and building activities. on the one side, there was contraction of vast
human consciousness (or mental function, chetana), and on the other,
readiness of competitive and self-motivated tremendous and unique construction
works was falsifying those destructive activities of the aggressors and
invaders which were, really, a part of their religious duty (which was
bigotry), and a matter or Pride to the them Muslim rulers and administrators.
Under such adverse ciroumstances, the Jain community belowed the bugle of
creation over destruction.
Though of course, change
did take place in the religious rituals, faiths, norms, life-values and social
traditions and heritage owing to the entry of the non-Jains in the fold, but at
the same time, the process of metabolism and netabolism in the original
cultural chetana, i.e. consciousness also cotinued. The process of
disintegration and integration in the entire later mediaeval period lost much
as well as gained much. Jainism however, continued to be inspite of all blows
and buffets of different kinds from differet corners; it handed over its
different aspects, phases, systems, methods and methodologies to the following
generation or period in a more logical and conscious form just to be a big and
a memorable chapter in the cultural history of India. And thus it proved a real
blockbuster.
Sources :
This article is based on various
sources which have been utilised on an exitensive but general basis. Therefore,
a consolidated list of these sources is given below :
General
Political History
Sultanate
period
Delhi Sultanate, A Comprehensive
History of India (C.H.I., Vol.V), Delhi, 1982, Ch. 3-8
Delhi Sultanate (History and Culture
of Indian People, Vol. VI), Bombay, 1980, Ch.2-5
Verma Harishchandra, Madhyakälïna
Bhärata, Delhi, 1985, Ch.4-6 (Hindi)
Mughal
Period
Mughal Empire (History and Culture of
Indian People, Vol.VII), Bombay, 1974, Ch.3-8
Shrivastava Ashirvadilal, Bhärata Kä
Itihäsa (1000-1707 AD), Agra, 1979, Ch. 21-24 (Hindi) Nigam Shyamsunder,
Bhärata Kä Navïna Itihäsa, Agra, 1970, Second Part, Ch. 6 (Hindi)
Gujarat And
Malwa
Majumdar A.K., Chälukyas of Gujarat,
Bombay, 1956, pp. 28-42, 67ff., 94-100, 121-27
Mishra S.C., Rise of Muslim Power in Gujarat
(1298-1442), Bombay, 1960
De Upendra, Mediaeval Malwa, Delhi,
pp. 367-70
Kanungo Shobha, Ujjaiyinï kä
Sämskritika Itihäsa, Indore, 1972, pp. 224-32
Alan, Haig, Dodwell and Sethi, The
Cambridge Shorter History of India, Delhi, 1958, pp. 234-40
Guru Shambhudayal, Ädhunika Itihäsa
ke Sandarbha men Malwa (Janadharma, Malwa Special (Issue), Bhopal, 1990, pp.
43-51
Delhi Sultanate (C.H.I., Vol.V), Ch.
11-12
Rajasthan
Sharma G.N., Rajasthan through the
Ages, Vol.2, Ch. 14, pp. 383-406 (Hindi)
Jain Rajesh, Madhyakälïna Rajasthan
men Jaina Dharma (M.R.J.D.), Typed Thesis pp. 42-84 (Hindi)
Jain K.C., Ancient cities and Towns
of Rajasthan Delhi, 1972, pp.10-16, 577-81
South India
Ramanappa M.N. Venkat, Outlines of
South Indian History, New Delhi, 1975, Ch. 18-19
Shastri K.A. Nilakanth, Dakshiîa
Bhärata Kä Itihäsa (Trans. Verma Virendra), Patna, Ch. 9-12 (Hindi)
History Of
Post-Mediaeval Jainism
Original
Sources :
(Edited by Muni Jinavijaya-)
Prabandha Chintämani (Merutunga) -
Eng. trans- Tawney, Calcutta, 1901, pp. 65ff. 84 ff., 116 ff. 151-55
Purätana Prabandha Samgraha
(Jinaprabha), Calcutta, 1936, pp. 10,31-34, 51-52, 99, 108-13, 116, 124
Jaina Lekha Samgraha, part2,
Bhavnagar, 1921, Nos. 26, 29, 131-32, 170-74, 264-65, 267
Vividha Tïrtha kalpa (Jinaprabha), Shanti
Niketana, 1934 (relevant references)
Prabhävaka Charitra (Prabhächandra),
Ahmedabad, 1940, pp. 30, 181-84, 195-206
Prächïna Jaina Lekha Samgraha, Khaîâa
2, Nos. 34-35, 447
Mukhtar Jugalkishore and Jain P.,
Jaina Grantha Prashasti Samgraha, Delhi, 1954, pp. 116ff., 189-200
Jaina Pustaka Prashasti Samgraha,
Vol.1, Bombay, 1943, Nos. 47-48, 72-73, 131-34, 137
Overall
Estimate
Saletor B.A., Mediaeval Jainism,
Bombay, 1938 (relevant references)
Jain K.C., A Brief Historical Survery
of jainism and its Contribution to Indian Culture, New Delhi, 1998, pp. 30-39
Chaterjee Asimkumar, A Comprehensive
History of Jainism, Vol.2, Calcutta, 1984, 3 & 4
Gujrat And
Rajasthan
Sheth, Jainism in Gujarat, Bombay,
pp. 173-80, 221ff Gandhi S.B., Collections of Historical Writings, pp. 272ff.
Jain K.C., Jainism in Rajasthan,
Sholapur, 1963, Ch.3
Sharma G.N., Rajasthan through the
Ages, Vo. II, Bikaner, 1990, No. Ch. 11, pp. 335-37
Jain Rajesh, Madhyakälïna Rajasthan
men Jaina Dharma (M.R.J.D.) Typed thesis, 1988, pp. 42-84 (Hindi)
Somani Rajvallabh, Jain Inscriptions
of Rajasthan, Jodhpur, 1970, pp. 196-98
Malwa
Loda Nandlal, Mälavänchala ke
Jaina-lekha (ed. Shyamsunder Nigam, Ujjain, 1995, pp. 18-20 (Hindi)
De U.N., (op. cit. Appendix D Jain
Prakashchandra, Madhyakälïna Malwa men Jaina Dharma (m.m.j.d) Typed thesis, 1992, pp. 62-119
Nizami A.H., Contribution of Jainism
to the History of Malwa (Shodha Sadhana) 1986, pp. 85-90)
Bundelakhanda
Jain Jyoti p., Pramukha Aitihäsika
Purusha evam Mahilaen, Delhi, 1975, pp. 223-29 (Hindi)
South India
Ayyangar and Sheshgiri, Studies in
South India Jainism, Madras, 1922 (relevant references) Desai P.B., Jainism in
South India and Some Jaina Epigrabhs, Sholapur, 1957 (relevant references)
Rishabha Saurabha - Seminar on Jaina
Heritage of Karnataka, Rishabha Foundation, Delhi, 1994 The following articles
published in it Narasimha Murthy P.N., Important Jaina
Rulers and Their Contribution, pp.
44-45
Bhat Raghunath, Jaina Art in
Karnataka, pp. 33-43
Krishnamurthy M.S., Jaina Monuments
in Southern Karnataka, pp. 56-116
Branches And
Sub-Branches Of Jainism
Gani Pt. Kalyanavijaya, Srï Paûûävalï
Paräga Samgraha, Jalor, 1966, pp. 182-86 (Hindi)
Joharapurakar Vidyadhar, Bhaûûäraka
Sampradäya, Sholapur, 1953 (relevant references) (Hindi)
Kharatara Gachchha Gurvävalï
(Jinapäla) Ed. JinaVijaya, Bombay, 1956, pp. 52-59
Shah Jayantilal Chhotalal, Srï
Tapägachchha Sramaîa Vamsha Vriksham Ahmadabad, V.S. 2452 (Geneology)
Chandraprabha Sagar, Kharatara
Gachchha Kä Ädi-Kälïna Itihäsa, Delhi, 1990, pp. 16-20 (Hindi)
Rathore Gajasimha, Jaina Dharma Kä
Maulika Itihäsa, Part 3, Jaipur, 1981, pp. 136-38, 711, 783 :
Part 4, Jaipur, 1981, pp. 627-29
(Hindi)
Paûûävalï Samuchchaya (Ed. Muni Jina
Vijaya),
Ahmedabad, 1950 (relevant references)
Jain Jyotiprakash, op. cit.,
Mediaeval and Modern Ages
M.R.J.D., pp. 95-145
M.M.J.D., Ch. 5