Chapter
1
Jainism
Before Mahävīra
The history
of Jainism before Mahävīra and Pärávanätha is shrouded in considerable
obscurity. Material which can reconstruct it is scanty, dubious and capable of
different interpretations. Scholars have, therefore, come to widely divergent
conclusions. The Jainas themselves believe that their religion is eternal and
that before Mahävīra (C.600 B.C.), there lived twentythree Tīrthaõkaras who
appeared at certain intervals to propagate true religion for the salvation of
the world. Some scholars1 hold that there are
traces of the existence of Áramaîa culture even in pre-Vedic times. H. Jacobi2
has proved
both from the Buddhist and the Jaina records that Pärávanätha, the immediate
predecessor of Mahävīra, who is said to have flourished some 250 years before
him, is an historical personality.
According to
the tradition preserved in the scriptures, Jaina religion is eternal, and it
has been revealed again and again in every cyclic period of the world by
innumerable Tīrthaõkaras. The whole span of time is divided into two equal
cycles, Utsarpiîī (ascending) Käla and Avasarpiîī (descending) Käla. Each Utsarpiîī and Avasarpiîī Käla is
subdivided into six parts. The six divisions of Avasarpiîī are known as Su˙amä
- Su˙amä (Happy-Happy), Su˙amä (Happy),
Su˙amä - Du˙amä (Happy-Unhappy), Du˙amä-Su˙amä (Unhappy-Happy), Du˙amä
(Unhappy) and Du˙amä-Du˙amä (Unhappy-Unhappy). The six divisions of Utsarpiîī
are Du˙amä-Du˙amä (Unhappy-Unhappy), Du˙amä (Unhappy), Du˙amä-Su˙amä
(Unhappy-Happy), Su˙amä-Du˙amä (Happy-Unhappy), Su˙amä (Happy) and
Su˙amä-Su˙amä (Happy-Happy). The Utsarpiîī, therefore, marks a period of
gradual evolution and the Avasarpiîī that of gradual devolution or decline in
human innocence and happiness, bodily strength and stature, span of life, and
the length of the age itself, the First age being the longest and the Sixth the
shortest. Conditions in the First, Second and Third ages of Avasarpiîī are
those of Bhogabhümihappy and contented, enjoyment based, entirely dependent on
nature, without any law or societywhile life in the other three ages is
described as being that of a Karmabhümi, since it is based on and revolves
round individual as well as collective effort. The fourth age of either cycle
is supposed to be the best from the point of view of human civilization and
culture, and it is this age that produces a number of Tīrthaõkaras and other
great personages. We are now living in the Fifth age of the Avasarpiîī
(descending half-circle) of the current cycle of time, which commenced a few
years (3 years and 31/2 months) after
Mahävīra's nirväna (527 B.C.) and is of 21000 years duration."3
Twentyfour
Tīrthaõkaras appeared at certain intervals and preached the true religion for
the salvation of the world. Their names are : (1) Ô˙abha, (2) Ajita, (3)
Saãbhava, (4) Abhinandana, (5) Sumati, (6) Padmaprabha, (7) Supäráva, (8)
Candraprabha, (9) Suvidhi or Pu˙hpadanta, (10) Áītala, (11) Áreyäãáa,
(12) Väsapüjya, (13) Vimala, (14) Ananta, (15) Dharma, (16) Áänti, (17) Kunthu,
(18) Ara, (19) Malli, (20) Munisuvrata, (21) Nami, (22) Nemi, (23) Päráva,
and (24) Vardhamäna or Mahävīra.
All the
Tīrthaõkaras were K˙atrīyas; Munisuvrata and Nami belonged to Harivaãáa, and
the remaining twentytwo to the Ik˙aväku race. Malli, according to the Ávetämbaras,
was a woman, but this the Digambaras deny, for according to them no female can
attain liberation.
Ô˙abha
as Founder of Jainism
According to the Jaina
tradition, ô˙abha, who belonged
to the Ik˙väku family of Ayodhyä, was the founder of Jainism. His parents were
Näbhīräja and Marudevī. His son's name was Bharata after whom India is said to
be named. He was the first Tīrthaõkara who was born in an age when people,
primitive and illiterate, did not know any art. He is said to have taught the
arts of agriculture, cooking, writing, pottery, painting and sculpture for the
first time. It was during his time that the institution of marriage, the
ceremony of cremating the dead, building of the mounds and the festivals in
honour of Indra and the Nägas came into existence. We may, thus, look upon him
as a great pioneer in the history of human progress.
It is often
said that there is a reference to Tīrthaõkara Ô˙abha in the Vedic literature.
Some Vedic preceptors paid reverence to Tīrthaõkara Ô˙abha, and regarded him as
the Mahädeva. In the Ôgveda,4 and the Taittirīya Äraîyaka,5 Vätaraáanas have been
mentioned, and in the same context an excellent tribute has been paid to Keáī.6 This Keáī alludes to
Ô˙abha because in Jaina literature, there is a tradition that Tīrthaõkara
Ô˙abha was called Keáī. Even on the ancient images of Tīrthaõkara Ô˙abha, locks
of hair are noticed. In the Ôgveda,7 Keáī has been mentioned along with
Vô˙abha. From this it is argued that Vô˙abha lived before the Vedic times and
was the first fountain-head of Áramaîa culture. It is from the context
of the Ôgveda that Tīrthaõkara Ô˙abha has been depicted as one who sponsored
Vätaraáana Áramaîas in the Bhägavata Puräîa8 of the eighth century
A.D. From about the fourth or third century B.C., it seems that Ô˙abha became
popular as the first Tīrthaõkara, and the founder of Jainism.
Ari˙ûanemi
or Neminätha as Tīrthaõkara
Besides Ô˙abhadeva,
Ari˙tanemi or Neminätha has also been mentioned as the Tīrthaõkara of the
Jainas. He is said to be the twenty-second Tīrthaõkara. He was the son of a
king named Samudravijaya of Áaurīpura, a big town on the bank of the Yamunä.
His mother's name was Áivädevī. He was named Ari˙tanemi because his mother
saw in a dream a Nemi, the outer rim of a wheel, which consisted of
Ri˙ûa stones flying up to the sky. Giranära or Raivataka hill is considered to
be his Nirväîa place.
Neminätha is
connected with the legend of Sri Kô˙îa as his relative. According to the
Tri˙aáûiáaläkäpuru˙acarita, he was a cousin of Lord Kô˙îa who negotiated his
marriage with Räjamatī, daughter of Ugrasena, ruler of Dvärikä, but Neminätha,
taking compassion on the animals which were to be slaughtered in connection
with the marriage feast, left the marriage procession suddenly and renounced
the world. He then left Dvärikä and proceeded to a garden called Sahasramarvana
on the mount Raivataka, where he practised asceticism and attained salvation.
According to the Kalpasütra, he lived up to the age of 1,000 years.
The Chändogya
Upani˙ad9 refers to Kô˙îa, son of
Devakī, as a disciple of Ghora Aõgirasa who instructed him about Tapas
(austerity), Däna (charity), Ärjava (simplicity or piety), Ahiãsä
(non-injury) and Satyaväcana (truthfulness) virtues which are extolled
by Kô˙îa in the Gītä. As Jaina tradition makes Väsüdeva-Kô˙îa a
contemporary of Tīrthaõkara Ari˙ûanemi who preceded Pärávanätha, some scholars
identify Ghora Äõgirasa with Neminätha. Neminätha is also known to have
instructed Árīkô˙îa.
The age when
Väsudeva-Kô˙îa flourished cannot be determined with certainty. The Chändogya
Upani˙ad (the sixth or seventh century B.C.) refers to Vasudeva Kô˙îa. The Mahäbhärata
war, in which Kô˙îa is known to have participated, was, according to H.C. Ray Chaudhuri, fought either in
the 14th century B.C. or in the 9th century B.C.10
Jainism
as a Pre-Vedic Religion
It has been pointed out
by some scholars that Jainism is a pre-Vedic religion. G.C. Pandey11
has tried
to show that the anti-ritualistic tendency, within the Vedic fold, is itself
due to the impact of an asceticism which antedates the Vedäs. Jainism
represents a continuation of this pre-Vedic stream. Some of the relics,12 recovered from the
excavations at Mohenjo-däro and Harappä, are related to Áramaîa or Jaina
tradition. The nude images in Käyotsarga i.e., the standing posture lost
in meditation, closely resemble the Jaina images of the Ku˙äîa period. Käyotsarga
is generally supposed to belong to the Jaina tradition. There are some idols
even in Padmäsana pose. A few others, found at Mohenjo-däro, have hoods of
serpents. They probably belonged to pre-Vedic Näga tribe. The image of the
seventh Tīrthaõkara, Supäráva, has a canopy of serpent-hoods.
Even after
the destruction of the Indus civilization, the straggling culture of the Áramaîas,
most probably going back to pre-Vedic and pre-Aryan times, continued even
during the Vedic period as is indicated by some such terms as Vätaraáana,
Muni, Yati, Áramaîa, Keáī, Vrätya, Arhan and Áiánadeva. The Keáī Sükta
of the Ôgveda delineates the strange figure of the Muni who is described
as long-haired, clad in dirty, tawny-coloured garments, walking in the air,
drinking poison, delirious with Mauneya and inspired. There can hardly
be any doubt that the Muni was to the Ôgvedic Culture an alien figure.
The TaittiriyaÄraîyaka13 speaks of Áramaîas who were called Vätraáanäę.
They led a celibate life and teach Brähmaîas the way beyond sin.
The word Áramaîa
occurs in the Upani˙ads,14 although the Muîâakopani˙ad has
various references to the shaven-headed ascetics who revile the Vedas.
All the passages of Vedic literature,15 taken together, suggest that the Yatīs
were the people who had incurred the hostility of Indra, the patron of the
Äryas, and whose bodies were, therefore, thrown to the wolves.
The Paņcaviãáa
Brähmaîa16 describes some
peculiarities of the Vrätyas. They did not study the Vedas; they did not
observe the rules regulating the Brähmanical order of life. They called an
expression difficult to pronounce when it was not difficult to pronounce at all
and spoke the tongue of the consecrated though they themselves were not
consecrated. This proves that they had some Präkôtik form of speech. The
Präkôta language is especially the language of the canonical works of the
Jainas. K.P. Jayaswal17 states that they had
traditions of the Jainas current among them.
In the Ôgveda,18 Arhan has been
used for a Áramaîa leader : Oh Arhaî, you fed compassion for this
useless world. The mention of Áiánadevas (naked gods) in the Ôgveda19 is also noteworthy.
PÄrÁvanÄtha
as an Historical Figure
H. Jacobi20 and others have proved
on the authority of both the Jaina and the Buddhist records that Päráva was an
historical personage. Their arguments are as follows :
1. In the
Buddhist scriptures, there is a reference to the four vows (Cäturyäma Dharma)
of Päráva in contra-distinction to the five vows of Mahävīra. The Buddhists
could not have used the term Cäturyäma Dharma for the Nirgranthas unless they
had heard it from the followers of Päráva. This proves the correctness of the
Jaina tradition that the followers of Päráva, in fact, existed at the time of
Mahävira.
2. The
Nirgranthas were an important sect at the time of the rise of Buddhism, as may
be inferred from the fact that they are frequently mentioned in the Piûakas
as opponents of Buddha and his disciples. This is further supported by another
fact. Maõkhali Goáäla, a contemporary of Buddha and Mahävīra, divided mankind
into six classes, and of these, the third class contained the Nirgranthas.
Goáäla, probably, would not have ranked them as a separate class of mankind if
they had recently come into existence. He must
have regarded them as members of a very important and at the same time
an old sect.
3. The
Majjhima Nikäya records a dispute between Buddha and Sakdäl, the son of a
Nirgrantha. Sakdäl was not himself a Nirgrantha. Now, when a famous
controversialist, whose father was a Nirgrantha, was a contemporary of Buddha,
the Nirgrantha sect could scarcely have been founded during Buddha's life-time.
4. The
existence of Päráva's Order in Mahävīra's time is proved by the reported
disputes between the followers of Päráva and those of Mahävira. The followers
of Päráva, who did not fully recognize Mahävīra as their spiritual guide,
existed during Mahävīra's life-time. A sort of compromise has been effected
between the two sections of the Jaina Saãgha.
These
arguments clearly show that Pärávanätha was a real historical figure. Very few
facts of his life are, however, known. The Kalpasütra informs us that
Päráva was the son of king Aávasena of Väräîasī (Banaras) and queen Vämä,
belonging to the Ik˙väkü race of the K˙atriyas.
Many legends
have gathered round Päráva. Throughout his life, he was connected with snakes
in one way or the other. In his childhood, for instance, while he lay by the
side of his mother, a serpent was seen crawling about. When he grew up, he
saved a serpent from the grave danger it was in. He also saved a poor terrified
snake which had taken shelter in a log of wood to which a Brähmaîa ascetic,
Kamaûha, had set fire. After its death, the snake became God Dharaîendra who
spread a serpent's hood over Päráva.
According to
Svetambaras, Päráva was married to Prabhävatī, the daughter of Prasenajit the
king of Kuáasthala. But according to Digambaras, Päráva was unmarried. He must
have been a man of genial nature, as he is always given the epithet
Puri˙ädänīya,21 'beloved of men'. He
lived for thirty years in great splendour and happiness as a householder, and
then, forsaking all his wealth, became an ascetic. After 84 days of intense
meditation, he attained the perfect knowledge of a Tīrthaõkara, and from that
time, he lived for about seventy years in the state of most exalted perfection
and sainthood. At last, he attained Nirväîa22 (liberation) in 777
B.C. on the summit of Mount Sammedaáikhara, now named Pärávanätha hill
after him.
A man of
practical nature, Päráva was remarkable for his organizing capacity. He
organized the Saãgha (Organization) efficiently for the propagation of
Jainism. He had eight Gaîas and eight Gaîadharas, namely, Subha
and Äryagho˙a, Vaái˙ûha and Brahmacärin, Saumya and Áridhara, Vīrabhadra and
Yaáas. He had an excellent community of 16,000 Áramaîas with Äryadatta
at their head; 38,000 nuns with Pu˙pacülä at their head; 1,64,000 lay votaries
with Sunandä at their head;23 350 sages who knew the
four Pürvas; 1,400 sages who were possessed of the Avadhi knowledge;
1,000 male and 2,000 female disciples who had reached perfection; 750 sages,
each gifted with mighty intellect; 600 professors and 1,200 sages in their last
birth.24 Here the Digambara
texts differ. According to them, there were ten Gaîas and ten Gaîadharas
among whom Svayambhü was the chief disciple. They also differ in giving the
number of nuns, laymen and female lay votaries which, acording to them, was
twentysix thousand, one lac and three lacs respectively. He is said to have
visited many cities for the dissemination of Jainism, the most important of
which are Ahichatra, Amalakappä, Áävatthi, Kampillapura, Sägeya, Räyagiha, and
Kosambī.
According to
the Jaina tradition, the sacred literature descending from the time of Päráva
was known as Puvvas (Pürvas). These 'Earlier' compositions were called
Puvvas (Pürvas) evidently because they existed prior to the Aõgas.
They are said to have formed a common basis of Jaina & Äjivika canon. It is
from these Pürvas that Goáäla Maõkhaliputta, the leader of the Äjivikas
drew inspiration. It is said that Äjivika canon, consisting of eight Mahänimittas
and two Märgas, was atleast partially based upon these Pürvas.25
The fourteen
Pürvas were recognized as constituting a twelfth Aõga called Dô˙ûiväda.
The knowledge of the fourteen Pürvas remained up to Sthülabhadra,
the eighth patriarch after Mahävīra. For some time, only ten Pürvas were
known and then the remaining Pürvas were gradually lost. Dr. H.L. Jain thinks that in the aûkhaîâägama
of Pu˙padanta and Bhütabali, we have not only an important canonical book of
the Digambaras but also a later representation of the Dô˙ûiväda which
contained some portion of the original fourteen Pürvas.26
The Jainä Sütras
and the early Buddhist texts enlighten us about the doctrines and followers of
Päráva. The religious order founded by him was reputed for a high and rigid
standard of conduct. He made four moral precepts binding upon his followers,
precepts which were later enforced by Mahävīra and Buddha upon their followers.
His rules were not confined only to these four precepts but they embraced many
other rules laid down for the practical guidance of the fraternity and laity.
All the fundamental rules of the Nigaîûha community were due to Päráva and his
followers. B.M. Barua27 points out that Päráva,
the philosophic predecessor of Mahävīra, had rules of conduct which demanded a
philosophic justification in order that they might not appear arbitrary or be
confused with social conventions.
The Uttarädhyayana
Sütra fürnishes a dialogue which sheds abundant light on this obscure point.
The interlocutors are the two leading representatives of the Nigaîûha Order of
the time. Keáī, a follower of Päráva's rule, asks Gautama, who was one of the
chief disciples of Mahävīra: "When the four precepts promulgated by the
great sage Päráva are equally binding upon the two orders, what is the cause of
difference between us?" "Wisdom" replies Gautama, "recoginzes
the truth of the law and the ascertainment of true things. The earlier saints
were simple but slow of understanding, the last saints, prevaricating and slow
of understanding, those between the two, simple and wise; hence there are two
forms of the Law. The first could only with difficulty understand the precepts
of the Law, and the last could only with difficulty observe them, but those
between them easily understood and observed them,"28
About the
teachings of Päráva, it must be admitted, we have no exact knowledge. His
religion was, however, meant for one and all without any distinction of caste
or creed. He allowed women to enter his Order. He laid stress on the doctrine
of Ahiãsä. According to him, strict asceticism was the only way to
attain salvation. Fundamentally, the doctrines of Päráva and Mahävīra were the
same. Päráva preached four vows instead of five. According to H. Jacobi, the Order of Päráva
seems to have undergone some changes in the period between the Nirväna of
Päráva and the advent of Mahävīra.
Päráva
enjoined on his followers four great vows : (1) Abstinence from killing living
beings; (2) Avoidance of falsehood; (3) Avoidance of theft, and (4) Freedom
from possessions. H. Jacobi29
has clearly
perceived that a doctrine attributed to Mahävīra in the Buddhist Sämaņņaphala
Sutta properly belonged to his predecessor, Päráva, insofar as the
expression Cäturyäma Saãvara is concerned. The doctrine is that,
according to Mahävīra, the way to self-possession, self-command, and
imperturbability consists of 'a four-fold self-restraint', such as restraint in
regard to all things, restraint in regard to all evil, and restraints imposed
for the purification of sin and feeling a sense of ease on that account.30
The Jaina
writers tell us that Nagnajit, king of Gandhära, Nami, king of Videha,
Durmukha, King of Paņcäla, Bhīma, king of Vidarbha, and Karakaîâu, king of
Kaliõga adopted the faith of the Jainas.31 As Päráva (877-777
B.C.) was probably the first historical Jina, these rulers, (if they really
became converts to his doctrines), have to be placed between 842 B.C. and 600
B.C.. They are known to have ruled over their respective kingdoms before the
sixth century B.C.
Päráva had a
large number of followers around Magadha even in the days of Mahävīra. Mahävīra's
parents, who belonged to the Jņätrī-Kshatriyas, were worshippers of Päráva.32 Following the teachings
of Päráva, they peacefully died practising slow starvation Sallekhanä. The Uttarädhyayana
Sütra33 relates a meeting
between Keáī and Gautama as representatives of the two Jaina Orders, the old
and the new. The Bhagavatī Sütra34 refers to a dispute between
Käläsavesiyaputta, a follower of Päráva, and a disciple of Mahävīra. The Näyäddhammakahäo35 says that Käli, an old
maiden joined Päráva's order and was entrusted to Pupphacülä, the head of the
nuns.The two sisters of Uppalä joined the order of Päráva, but being unable to
lead the rigid life of the order, they became Brähmin Parivräjikäs
(female wanderers). Municanda, a follower of Päráva, lived in a potter's shop
in Kumäräya-Sannive˙a in the company of his disciples. Vijayä and
Pagabbhä, two female disciples of Päráva, served Mahävīra and Goáäla in Küviya-Sannive˙a.36 The Bhagavatī Sütra37 refers to Gäõgeya, a
follower of Päráva in Väîiyagäma. He gave up the four vows of Päráva and
adopted the five Mahävratas of Mahävīra. The Näyädhammakahäo38 mentions Puîâariya who
accepted the four vows of Päráva. The followers of Päráva moved in the company
of five hundred monks into the city of Tuõgiya.39 A number of laywomen
joined Päráva's Order.40 The Räyapaseîaiyasüya41 refers to a follower of
Päráva named Keáī who visited Seyaviyä where a discussion between him and Paesī
took place regarding the identity of the soul and body. A follower of Päráva
named Udaka met Gautama, the first Gaîadhara of Mahävīra. Gautama was
successful in winning over Udaka to his side.42 From the dialogue
between Udaka and Gautama, it appears that the followers of Päráva and the
disciples of Mahävīra were respectively known as the Nigaîûha Kumäraputtas and
the Nigaîûha Näthaputtas.
References :
1. H. Zimmer : Philosophies
of India, pp. 217-227;
J.G.R.
Forlong : Short Studies in the Science
of Comparative Religions, pp. 243-244;
Psob : p. 260;
Tulsi : Pre-Vedic Existence of Áramaîa Tradition.
2. SBE, XLV, pp. xx-xxiii.
3. Jyoti
Prasad Jain : Religion and Culture of the Jainas.
4. RV, X, 11.139.2-3.
5. Taitt. Ar, 2.7.1, p. 137.
6. RV, X, 11, 136-1.
7. Ibid., X, 9, 102-6.
8. Bhägavata, V, 3, 20.
9. Chänd, III, 17, 6
10. Phal,
pp. 31-36.
11. Psob,
pp. 317, 258
12. Moh. Ind, plate xii, Figs. 13, 14, 15, 19,
22.
13. Taitt. Är, I. pp. 87, 137-8.
14. Bô. Up. 4. 3. 22.
15. Taitt. Sam, VI, 2, 75; Käûhaka
Saãhitä, VIII, 5; Ait. Br. 35. 2; Kau Up, III. 1; AV,
II, 53, Täîâya Mahä-Brähmaîa, VIII, 1-4.
16. Paņca. Br, XVII, 4, 1-9.
17. Jbors,
XIV, p. 26.
18. RV, II, 33, 10.
19. Ibid., VII, 21, 5; x, 99, 3.
20. Sbe,
XLV, pp. xx-xxiii.
21. Kalpa, 149, 155.
22. Kalpa, 168-169.
23. Ibid., 160-164.
24. Ibid., 166.
25. B.M. Barua
interprets the word Puvva in the text not in the specialised Jaina sense, but
merely as "past traditions". (See JDL, II, p. 41). His view is
perhaps strengthened by the fact that the eightfold Mahäîimitta of the Äjivikas
bears no resemblance to the titles of the fourteen lost Purvas of the Jaina
tradition.
26. Sama, 147 fol. 128. Utpäda-pürva,
Ägräyaîīya-pürva, Viryänuväda-pürva, Astinasti-praväda-pürva,
Jņäna-praväda-pürva, Satya-praväda-pürva, Ätmapraväda-pürva,
Karma-praväda-pürva, Pratyä-khyänanämadheya-pürva, Vidyänuväda-pürva,
Kalyäîanämadheya-pürva, Präîäväya-pürva, Kriyäviáäla-pürva, and
Lokabindusära-pürva.
27. Bhpip,
p. 380.
28. Sbe,
XLV, pp. 122-123.
29. Sbe,
XLV, pp. xix-xxii.
30. Dia, II, pp. 74-75.
31. Sbe,
XLV. p. 87.
32. Äcä, II, 15-16.
33. Uttarä, 23, pp. 119-129.
34. Bhag, I, 76.
35. Näyä, II. i; p. 222 ff.
36. Äva, cü, p. 291.
37. Bhag, IX. 32
38. Näyä, 19, p. 218.
39. Bhag, 2-5.
40. Näyä, II, 10.
41. Räya, 147 ff.
42. Sütra, II 7.