One
who is at the ascending stage of his spiritual development has acquired
vipulamati, while one who is sure to descend in the spiritual scale gets
rjumati manahparyaya. However, telepathic experience is itself possible
only for those who have the right attitude, who are free from passions
and possessed of rddhi. �It seems that the development of conception of
matahparyaya stopped with Pujyapada on one side and Jinabhadra on the
other. The later Jaina thinkers only took sides with one or the other,
but did not make any further development.�
We have seen that, in the West, interest in extra-sensory
perception is increasing. It is being investigated on an experimental
basis since the establishment of the Society for Psychical Research.
Philosophers, psychologists and other scientists have been taking
interest in the problem. Prof. Oliver Lodge carried out experiments on
telepathy
when he was a Professor of Physics. Some of the Universities in the West
have been taking up the study of the problem. Duke University is
foremost in this respect. At present, the phenomena of extra-sensory
perception, like clairvoyance, telepathy, precognition and mediumship
have been accepted as facts, Even psychologists like McDougall are
inclined to believe that extra-sensory perception, like clairvoyance,
telepathy and foreknowledge, seems also in a fair way established. Even
critical investigators, like Lehman, admit the existence of genuine
telepathy. Dr. Mitchell says that telepathy or some mode of acquiring
knowledge which for the present we may call supernormal must be
admitted, because if we refuse to accept telepathy we stand �helpless�
in the face of well-attested phenomena which could not otherwise be
accounted for. Prof. H. H. Price is of opinion that evidence for
clairvoyance and telepathy is �abundant and good.� Prof. Richet admits
that telepathic experiences certainly exist. Dr. Rhine, who has done
good work on extra-sensory perception, says that extra-sensory
perception in the form of clairvoyance and telepathy is an actual and
demonstrable occurrence. It is not a sensory phenomenon. Prof. Myres
cites many instances of telepathic intuition. He mentions the
publication called Apparitions, which gives many instances. However,
Myres says that the evidence for telepathy does not rest entirely on
instances of such description. Other sources of evidence of the
existence of telepathy are possible to any one who has not a �strong
apriori objection to it.
Several theories have been presented to explain the phenomenon of
extra-sensory perception. Some scientists have explained telepathy in
terms of physical radiation. It is sometimes said that telepathy is an
experience in which an idea present in the conscious mind of A is
transferred to the conscious mind of B by some process resembling that
of radio-telepathy. Dr. Tuckett says that admission of telepathy means
nothing more than believing in the existence of vibrations in ether
resulting from and acting on nervous matter. Similarly, Prof. Ostwald
has proposed a physical theory of telepathy. He says that a
transpiration of known psycho-physical energies into unknown forms is
projected through time and space and and is received by the percipient.
But scientists like Myres, Tyrrell, Barrette and Mrs. Sidgwick show that
such a physical theory of telepathy is not adequate. Telepathy is more a
psychological fact than a physical phenomenon. Tyrrell shows that the
physical theory of telepathy does not work. He has given his own
explanation of telepathic experiences on the basis of Myers explanation.
He bases his own explanation on the assumption of the Subliminal self.
In telepathy, a signal is made to the conscious by the subliminal self
of the percipient, which may take the form of a sensory hallucination or
some other form. The importance of telepathy lies in the fact that it
reveals the subliminal portion of the human personality at work.
Similarly, more comprehensive theories that embrace clairvoyance and
telepathy have been mentioned by Rhine. He, however, says that evidence
for E. S. P. is good but the theories are bad.s Flew has mentioned two
current theories of telepathy: Carrington�s theory, and the Shin theory
put forward by Thouless and Weisner. But there is a strong case for
saying that the research situation is not right for theory
construction�. However inadequate may be the explanations given by the
various theories mentioned above, psychical phenomena like clairvoyance
and telepathy are at present established facts. Few deny the existence
of such phenomena; and the question whether such phenomena contradict an
established law of nature, like the law of causation, is irrelevant.
�The apparent contradiction arises because we have decided that anything
which happens at all must happen in the world order with which we are
familiar�. Similarly, we labour under the impression that all that is
known is known through the sense organs. But, once the idea has been
grasped that the organs of sense perception are narrowly specialized to
serve biological and practical ends; that our normal consciousness is
also specialized and largely focussed on consciousness; that our body is
highly specialized; that, in fact, as a psycho-physical being the human
individual represents a special adaptation to the sensory world, it
becomes easier to contemplate an elsewhere�, that is to say, a
continuation of the order of existence beyond the familiar. The
psychical phenomena of extra-sensory perception seem to contradict the
law of causation, because we have been accustomed to take cause in a
narrow and traditional sense. The trouble comes from using a concept of
cause which has not been adapted to cope with psi. Russell�s suggestion
of mnemic causation shows how we might adopt the concept cause�. We
might invent a �psi-causation�.
However, the Western analysis of extra-sensory perception like
clairvoyance, telepathy, foreknowledge and mediumship shows that they
are experiences possible for man, for some men for all time and perhaps
for all men for some time. Western scientists make these phenomena
paranormal and extra-sensory occurrences. A superstructure of
experimental investigation is being built for explaining these
occurrences in mail. Western scientists prefer to speak of extra-sensory
perception rather than supernormal perception, which we have mentioned
with reference to the Indian view of such experiences. Rhine says that
extra-sensory� perception is preferable to supernormal perception�
because of the ambiguity of the term supernormal in psychology. But the
Jaina analysis of avadhi and martahparyaya shows that
avadhi may be called paranormal, although it is not found in all
human beings, while manahparyaya may be called supernormal
cognition. We have seen that avadhi is- possible even for
sub-human beings and lower organisms and also for the denizens of hell.
These beings get it at birth, while in the case of human beings we
acquire it. This shows that avadhi need not be termed as
supernormal cognition. But manahparyaya is restricted to human
beings. Even the gods residing in heaven cannot possess it. Only those
human beings who have fully developed sense organs, who have the right
faith and self-control and who are free from passions can get the
experience of manahparyaya. These are the gifted few among human
beings. Therefore, manahparyaya may be included in supernormal
perception. The Western approach to the problem of extra-sensory
perception is analytic and critical. A good deal of experimental
investigation has been carried out in this connection. The Western
approach aims at finding experimental justification and a scientific
explanation for the existence of such phenomena. Western scientists
believe that it is possible for ordinary human beings to get such
experiences sometimes. But the Jaina approach, like all other ancient
Indian attitudes, is speculative. The ancient seers have experienced or
observed the existence of such phenomena. The Jaina view of such
supernormal perception is based on the intuition of the prophets and the
philosophic contemplation of the saints.
Kevala
According to the Jainas, the soul in its pure form is pure consciousness
and knowledge. It is omniscient. But it is obscured by the karmas,
just as the moon or the sun is liable to be obscured by the veil of
dust or fog, or by a patch of cloud. The obscuration of the soul is
beginningless, although it has an end. The veil of karma
obscuring the perfect knowledge of the soul is capable of being removed
by the practice of meditation and contemplation and by the practice of
self-control, just as the obscuration of the sun or the moon can be
removed by a blast of the wind. When such a veil of karma is
removed, omniscience dawns. That is kevala jnana, a stage of
perfect knowledge and the stage of kaivalya.
Perfect knowledge is gained by the
total destruction of the four types of karma-jnanavamya;
darsarravaraniya, mohaniya and
anrarirya karmas. The
total destruction of the mohartiya karma
is followed by a short interval of
time called muhurta,
which is about forty eight minutes. After an interval of less than a muhurta,
the other karmas
obscuring jnana
and darsana
and antaraya karma
are destroyed. Then the soul shines
in all its splendour and attains omniscience. The moment the darkening
karmic substance of the
six lesyas is removed,
ignorance disappears.
The
Jainas are agreed on the nature of omniscience. Omniscience intuits all
substances with all their modes. Nothing remains, unknown in
omniscience. There is nothing to be known and nothing is unknown.
It is the knowledge of all substances and modes of the past present and
future, all in one. It is lasting and eternal. It is transcendental and
pure. It is the perfect manifestation of the pure and the real nature of
the soul when the obstructive- and obscuring veils of
karma
are
removed. This omniscience is co-existent with the supreme state of
absolute clarity of the life monad! This is precisely the release. No
longer the monad dimmed with the beclouding of passions but open and
free and unlimited by the particularising qualities that constitute
individuality.
The
moment the limitations that make particular experience possible are
eliminated, perfect intuition of every thing knowable is attained. The
need of experience is dissolved in the infinite-this is the positive
meaning of
kaivalya.
Zimmer says that one is reminded of the protest of the modern French
poet and philosopher Paul Valery in his novel
Monsieur Teste.
�There are people,� he writes, who feel that the organs
of sense are cutting them off from reality and essence , , , , . . . : .
. knowledge, a cloud obscuring the essence of being; the shining moon,
like darkness or a cataract on the eye! Take it all away, so that I may
see�. Zimmer writes, �This outcry, together with the modern theory of
knowledge from which it arises, is remarkably close to the old idea to
which Jainism holds: that of the limiting force of our various faculties
of human understanding�.
There has been a controversy regarding the nature of
omniscience, the nature of
jnana
and
darsana
at the highest stage of
kaivalya.
Some philosophers like Umasvati say that in the case of
the omniscient,
kevala jnana
and
kevala
darsana
occur simultaneously at every point of time, Kundakundaearya states that
there is simultaneous occurrence of
both
jnana and
darsana in the omniscient
stage just, as the light and heat of the sun occur simultaneously. But
Siddhasena Divakara does not accept the distinction between
jnana and
darsana in the omniscient
stage. Jinabhadra, on the basis of the spiritual texts, supports the
view of successive occurrence of
jnana and darsana
in this stage. This problem has already been referred to in
our discussion on the relation between
jnana and
darsana. But the Jainas
never questioned the occurrence of omniscience for a purified soul,
although they had some differences of opinion regarding the possibility
of the occurrence of ,jnana
and darsana in this
stage.
We
now come to the criticism of the possibility of omniscience, as
presented by the Jainas. The Mimarilsakas are not prepared to accept the
possibility of the occurrence of omniscience, and have raised a series
of logical objections. According to them, omniscience cannot mean
knowledge of all the objects in the world, either at the same time or
successively. Nor can omniscience be knowledge of archetypal forms and
not of particular things. There can be no omniscience, as the knowledge
of the past, present and future can never be exhausted. Moreover, if all
objects were known in omniscience at one moment, the next moment there
would be a state of absolute unconsciousness. The omniscient, again,
would be tainted by the desires and aversions of others in knowing them.
But the Jainas refute the arguments of the Mimamsakas against the
occurrence of omniscience. In the
Pramanarnimamsa we get such refutation of the Mimansaka
arguments. Similarly, the Mimarirsaka objections have been refuted by
Prabhacandra in
Prameyakamalamartanda. The Jainas say that it is not correct
to deny the occurrence of omniscience as the Mimamsakas do. Omniscience
is the single intuition of the whole world, because it does not depend
upon the sense organs and the mind. The pure intuition of the omniscient
self knows all objects simultaneously, at a single stroke, since it
transcends the limits of time and space. Prabhacandra says that the
Mimamsaka objection that the omniscient soul would be unconscious the
moment after the occurrence of omniscience is not correct, because it is
a single unending intuition. For the omniscient, cognition and the world
are not destroyed the moment the omniscience is possible. Similarly, the
Jainas contend, as against the Mimarisakas, that the omniscient soul
knows the past as existing in the past and the future as existing in the
future. The omniscient self
is absolutely free from the bondage of physical existence as past,
present and future. In fact, the Msmarrsakas also admit that, in
recognition, we apprehend in a flash of intuition, the past as well as
the present in one cognition, while
pratibha jnana, in
empirical life, can apprehend the future as future. It is, therefore,
possible for the white omniscient soul, who is entirely free from the
fetters of karma, to
have a super-sensuous vision of the whole world, past, present and
future, by a single unending flash of intuition, In the
Pramarram Fmarivsn, the
possibility of the occurrence of omniscience is logically proved by the
necessity of the final consummation of the progressive development of
knowledge. There are degrees of excellence in knowledge, and the
knowledge must reach its consummation somewhere. That is the stage of
omniscience, when the obscuring
karmas are totally annihilated.
We
may briefly refer to the distinction in kevala jnana� mentioned in the
Narrdisutra. Kevula jnana
is of two types, (i) bhavastha,
the omniscience of the liberated who still live in this
world, as for instance the omniscience of the Tirtharikaras; and (ii)
the omniscience of one who is totally liberated, who may be called
siddha. The
bhavastha omniscience is,
again, of two types (i) suyogi and (ii)
avogi. There are
subdivisions in both these. Similarly,
siddhu omniscience is of
two types, (i) anantara kevala
and (ii) pararnpara
kevala, each having its own subdivisions. The classification
of omniscience as described in the
Nandisutra is given in
table No. IX. This classification of omniscience into various types is
not psychologically significant. It has possibly arisen out of the
general tendency, mentioned elsewhere, for mathematical calculations and
minute classifications.
The Jaina view of omniscience may be compared to the
Nyaya view of divine
knowledge and the yoga theory of divine perception. Divine
knowledge is all-embracing and eternal. It has no break. It is a single
all-embracing intuition. It is perceptual in character, as it is direct
and not derived through the instrumentality of any other cognition. The
divine perception grasps the past, the present, and the future in one
eternal �now�. The soul, according to the Jainas, is itself divine and
perfect, and there is no transcendental being other than the individual
soul. Each soul is a god by itself, although it is obscured by the
karmic veil in its
empirical state. The kaivalya
state of the individual soul may be compared to the divine
omniscience. However, the Naiyayikas and Pataijali admit that man has
sometimes a flash of intuition of the future and can attain omniscience
by constant meditation and practice of austerities. The Jainas believe
that, by the removal of obscuring
Icarma by meditation, the threefold path and self-control,
the individual soul reaches the consummation of omniscience, the state
of kaivalya. That is
the finality of experience. But others, like the Naiyayikas, posit a
divine omniscience which is higher and natural and eternal.
[Please see the
Table in file name �Page No. 135,148 is Table�]
It
is not possible to establish the possibility of omniscience on the basis
of the methods of investigation which psychology and the empirical
sciences follow. However, its logical possibility cannot be denied.
Progressive realization of greater and subtler degrees of knowledge by
the individual is accepted by some psychologists, especially since the
introduction of psychical research for analysing the phenomena of
extra-sensory perception. A consummation of this progressive realization
would logically be pure knowledge and omniscience, a single
all-embracing intuition.
CHAPTER VIII
THE JOURNEY OF THE
SOUL
(The Doctrine of
Gunasthanas)
�Man�s
history�, writes Tagore, �is the history of his journey to the unknown
in quest of the realization of the immortal self-his soul�.�
In
the Homeric epic, Ulysses descended to the nether world to seek counsel
of the departed, and there he saw the shades of his former companions
who were killed in the siege of Troy. They were but shadows, but each
one retained his original form. For the Western mind, personality is
eternal. It is indestructible, not to be dissolved. This is the basic
idea of the Christian doctrine of the resurrection of the body. In the
Western thought, the individual retains the individuality he had in his
empirical life. When the play is over, the persona cannot be taken off;
it clings through death and into the life beyond. �The occidental actor,
having wholly identified himself with the enacted personality during his
moment on the stage of the world, is unable to take it off when the time
comes for departure, and so keeps it on indefinitely, for
millenniums-even eternities-after the play is over�. But, as Zimmer
says, Indian philosophy, on the other hand, insists on the difference
emphasizing the distinction between the actor and his role. Indian
philosophy emphasizes the contrast between the empirical existence of
the individual and the transcendental nature of the self which is
unaffected by the vicissitudes of empirical existence.
The Jainas believe in the inherent capacity of the soul for
self-realization. Self-realization is not the realization of the
empirical ,self, but the realization of the transcendental self. The
goal is to reach perfection, �siddhahood�. In the Tattvarthasutra we get
an account of the nature of the soul as possessing the characteristic of
urcthvagati, tendency to move upwards. It is the tendency of the soul to
escape from the cycle of worldly existence and to reach perfection. This
tendency, this force leading upwards, is called the centrifugal force.
The capacity of the soul for perfection is, however, obstructed by the
obscuration of we soul by the veil of karma. The tendency for upward
motion is thwarted by the perversity of attitude, mithyatva that
develops through the accumulation
of karma. The soul gets caught in the wheel
of samsara and forgets its
real nature. The first three types of passions obscure the effort for
the search for truth (samyaktva),
capacity for partial renunciation,
(desavirata caritra), and
the capacity for the full realization of the
self. The effort for the
search for truth is thwarted and the effort takes the direction of
untruth. Still, the desire and the capacity to ascertain the truth about
the things of the world, remains unobscured. This is -explained
on the analogy of the clouds. The pure and perfect knowledge is still
possible, although it is covered by
mithyatva. The attainment
of samyaktva is a
necessary condition of the way to the realization of the
self. By the destruction
and subsidence of the veil of
karma which obscures the knowledge and activity of the soul,
the soul attains samyaktva
and knows its real nature. It is reminded of the great mission it
has to realize. It is aroused to active spiritual exertion. It is
awakened from nescient slumber, and its inherent capacity for
self-realization gets expression. It now knows that it has to escape
from the wheel of samsara
to get to the realization of itself. This is the awakening of the
soul. Sometimes the awakening comes through the instruction of those who
have realized the truth. But sometimes it is aroused by its own efforts
without any outside help. Jainism does not believe in the revelation of
truth like the Vedanta
and the Mimamsa
schools, nor does it accept the
Yoga and Nyaya
Vaisesika view that the supreme deity reveals the truth. The
Jainas believe that the soul has an inherent capacity for
self-realization.
But self-realization is a long process. It is an arduous and difficult
path. It is a fact of common experience that different individuals have
different degrees of power to realize the stage of perfection. In the
course of its eternal wandering in various forms of existence, the soul
sometimes gets an indistinct vision and feels an impulse to realize it.
This is due to the centrifugal force. Such an awakening does not always
lead to enlightenment and spiritual progress. The soul has to go through
various stages of spiritual ups and downs before the final goal is
reached. These stages of spiritual development are by the Jainas called
guyasthunas. They
believe that there are fourteen such stages of spiritual development.
These stages _ are linked up with the stages of the subsidence and
destruction of the karmic
veil. In its journey to perfection, the soul passes through an
infinite number of states, going from the lowest to the highest stages
of spiritual development.
We
shall now consider the journey of the soul through the fourteen stages
of spiritual development as the Jainas describe them.
Gunasthana refers to the
state of the soul at a particular stage in its spiritual development
with reference to the nature of
jnana, darsana, and
criteria, through the operation, subsidence and destruction
of karma.
The soul passes through an infinite
number of states in its journey. The stages which the soul has to go
through have been classified into fourteen stages. They are called
gunasthanas. In the
Gommatasara, we get a
list of fourteen gunasthanas
with a detailed description of each
stage. The fourteen gunasthanas
are as follows: (1)
Mithyadrsti, perversity of
attitude; (2) Sasvadana samvagdrsti,
transitory stage of the right
attitude; (3) Samyag-mithyadrsti,
the right and the wrong attitude
mixed; (4) Avirata samyagdrsti,
right attitude, but having no moral
self-control; (5) Desavirata samyagdrsti,
right attitude, with limited moral
self-control; (6) Virata,
partial self-control; (7)
Pramatta virata, imperfect
self-control; (8) Apurva karana,
new thought effort; (9)
Anivrtti karana, advanced mental
effort. This is also called anivpttibadara-samparaya; (10)
Suksrna samparaya, the slightest
mental disturbances; (11) upasanta kasaya,
suppression of mental disturbances;
(12) KsFna kasaya,
destruction of mental disturbances like delusions; (13) Sayoga
kevali, the stage of omniscience
while still in the bodily existence; and (14) Ayoga kevali,
the stage of omniscience and
perfection after throwing off all bodily bonds. After the last
gunasthana
the soul becomes
liberated. The first four stages of spiritual development have no moral
flavour and do not involve any moral effort. All other stages are
combined with moral effort. In all these different stages, the mental
efforts for the realization of the different stages of spiritual
development are innumerable. But the classification of the mental
efforts into fourteen spiritual stages has been possible as they present
prominent factors in the progress of self-realization.6
We have referred to the innate tendency of the soul to escape
from the wheel of
samsara.
The
soul possesses the characteristic of
urdhva gati.
This tendency is the centrifugal force which leads the
soul along the path of liberation. This tendency to struggle for
emancipation remains dormant in souls still clouded by the veil of
karma.
The counteracting forces, like the passions, obstruct the
progress of the soul in the path of realization. These are the
centripetal forces which keep the soul tied to the wheel of
samsara
and make it difficult for it to escape from the bonds of
empirical existence. The centripetal forces mainly consist of perversity
of attitude, in fact, of the obdurate perversity, and the passions that
cloud the purity of mental life. In its wanderings in the wheel of
samsara,
the soul, as we have seen, sometimes gets the vision of
the goal of liberation and of the way towards this goal. It also feels
an urge to make efforts to reach the goal. This urge is the expression
of the centrifugal force. It manifests the energy called
yathapravrttakarana.7
Visesavasyakabhasya
describes the process of operation of this energy towards
self-realization. The
yathapravrttakarana,
the
energy for effort, lasts only for some time, for less than a
muhurta,
about forty-eight minutes. The soul feels during this mental state a
kind of uneasiness with the worldly existence. It becomes aware that
this empirical life, the life in this world, is meaningless. It also
sees the possibility of emancipation from this empirical existence. If
the impulse which creates such dissatisfaction with the worldly
existence and a restless desire to struggle for emancipation, is strong,
then the soul cuts the cluster of
karmic
matter called the
granthi.
The
soul is then successful in some measure in its struggle to free itself
from the bondage of worldly existence. It is set on its way to
liberation. The struggle consists in the twofold process known as
apurvakarana
and
anivrttikarana. Labdhisara
describes the different stages of the progress of the soul on the way
to self-realization by means of these two processes. The process of
attainment of self-realization takes four forms: (l) a certain measure
of subsidence and destruction of
karmic
matter; (2) purification of the soul as a result of such process; (3)
the possibility of getting instruction from the sages; and (4) reduction
of the duration of all types of
karmas
except in the
ayukarmas
However, such a process of purification and the efforts for
self-realization are not possible for all souls. Some souls are not
capable of such spiritual efforts to the extent of reaching the highest
perfection. They are called
abhavya jivas.
It
is only for the souls which are embodied, possessing five sense organs
and mind and fully developed, that efforts towards self-realization are
possible. They are called
bhavya jivas.
In
such cases the soul gets an indistinct awareness of the sufferings of
the world and a vision of the way to liberation through the impulse of
yathapravrttakarana.
But
such an awareness is not alone sufficient for the upward journey of the
soul. A more powerful expression of the energy would be required for the
purpose of a fuller and more successful struggle for self-realization.
The soul that lacks energy fails to fulfil its mission and withdraws
from the struggle. The energy of
yathnpravrttakarana
which leads the soul in the direction of self-realization manifests
itself in two processes,
apurva karana
and
anivrtti karana.
The
karana
is
the spiritual impulse that leads the soul to fulfil its mission and to
realize the goal.
Karmaprakrti
gives a detailed description of the two processes that operate in the
efforts to realize the self. Thus, the inherent impulse of
yathapravrttakaraya
leads to the vision of the goal and makes efforts possible. In its
efforts to self-realization, the soul finds that it has to face
innumerable difficulties in the form of
karma granthi.
These hinder the efforts for enlightenment. The processes of
apurvakarana
enable the soul to clear the obstacles in the form of
karma granthi,
while
anivrttikarana
leads it to the verge of the dawn of enlightenment. The enlightenment
comes like a flash through the subsidence and destruction of the
mithyatvamohaniya karma.
This is
possible because of the fundamental characteristic of the soul in its
tendency to upward motion. The straggle for liberation goes on with the
help of the two processes mentioned above. This is the journey of the
soul along its homeward path. The progress of the soul in its homeward
journey takes fourteen stages till the final goal in perfection is
realized. These fourteen stages are the
gunasthdnas.
The soul gets the first spiritual vision from the subsidence of the
karmic matter and removal of the perversity of attitude, the mithyatva.
But this spiritual vision does not in the beginning last long. But the
soul remains restless and struggles in a number of ways to recapture the
vision and keep it permanently. This struggle is long and arduous. It
has to remove gradually the five conditions of bondage-mithyatva,
perversity of attitude, avirata, lack of self-control,
pramnda, spiritual
inertia, kasaya,
passion and trigupti, threefold activity of body, speech and mind. The
subduing of passions is an important condition of spiritual progress. It
is possible only by the operation of the processes of
yathapravrttakmana
manifesting in the forms of
apilrvakararra and
anivrttikaraza. The progress of the soul in all the fourteen
stages is possible in two ways: (1) the soul may suppress the passions,
when, as a consequence subsidence of the karma would take place. This is
the path of suppression or subsidence. It is called
upcrscrrna srerri. (2) The
soul may also go the way of annihilating the
karmas altogether. This
spiritual path is called k.saya
sreni. Thus, the soul goes the way of self-realization by the
paths of subsidence (trpasama),
and destruction, (ksaya)
of the karmic veil. In the highest stage of self-realization,
the soul reaches the stage of perfection and omniscience. This is the
fourteenth stage and the consummation of the struggle.
Discussion
of the Fourteen Stages
We
shall now refer briefly to the fourteen stages of spiritual development.
These stages represent the journey of the soul to self-realization.
(1) The first is the lowest stage. It is the stage of perversity of
attitude and is called mithyatvadrsti. In this stage, we accept wrong
beliefs and are under the false impression that what we believe is
right. We look at every thing through coloured glasses We refuse to
recognise that we are wrong. It is a stage of wrong belief which is
caused by the operation of mithyatva karma. However, the soul is not
entirely bereft of an indistinct vision of the right. This is possible
because the soul cannot be entirely bereft of the possession of the
right knowledge. The soul has at least the minimum degree of right
vision in this stage, although the latter is entirely clear. Though the
soul has, the capacity of removing the perversity by means of the right
vision, it is still, under the veil of perversity. The perversity of
wrong belief consists in not having belief in things as they are. Wrong
belief is of five kinds: (i) one-sided belief (ekanta); (ii)
perversity of belief (viparita). For instance, the practice of
sacrifice of animals is due to perversity of belief. In this, we forget
that a11 lives have to be respected. We ignore the fundamental equality
and dignity of the individual souls in whatever state they are; (iii)
veneration of false creeds, called vinaya. It refers to the
acceptance of a false creed; (iv) doubt, which is responsible for
instability of faith, (sariasaya), as when we are not prepared to
accept either of two beliefs; (v) indiscreet acceptance of any view
although it is perverse and wrong, ajancr. The soul, suffering
from perversity of attitude, does not relish the truth, just as a man
suffering from fever has no taste for sugarcane juice. This state of the
soul refers to the perversity which may give rise to intellectual
aberrations like false ideologies in social, political and religious
life. Even souls that have cut the karma granthi and have
experienced spiritual vision may fall back to this stage of perversity.
For instance, a man who has known the right view may fall back and be
perversely fanatical in the wrong faith. However, such men are not
totally condemned, because, for them, there is a possibility of
regaining the lost vision. They have tasted the right vision, and when
the occasion arises they will realize that they have fallen back and try
to free themselves from their perversity of attitude. This is not so
easy for those who are still in the lowest stage of spiritual
development, since they have never had a glimpse of the right vision.
(2) The next stage is the sasvadana samyagdrsti. This is a
transitory stage, as it is an intermediate stage in the fall from the
heights of samyaktva. The soul halts while falling from a higher
stage of spiritual development. For instance, at the end of the period
of the dawn of enlightenment life-long passions envelop the soul, and
there is a fall to a lower stage. From the higher stage of samyaktva
the soul comes down to wrong belief, but it has neither the right
belief nor a fanatical perversity of attitude. This is called the
doubtful stage, or sasvadana. The mental states in this stage are
said to be in a transitory condition. The soul had_ acquired the right
belief but it has now come down, although the fall is, not to the lowest
stage. The minimum duration of the fall in this stage is one instant of
time (samaya), and the maximum is avali, six wings. During
this fall, the soul has neither the right belief nor the wrong belief,
because the karma which is responsible for the perversity of
attitude (mithyatva) has not yet begun to operate. It is possible
that after one avali the mithyatva karma may begin to
operate again, when it falls to the lowest stage of
mithyatva drsti. Putting
this description into language common, we may say that those who strive
and get the right attitude towards life and the right view about the
things of the world in social and political life, may begin to hesitate
and fall back on false views through the loud propaganda of the false
beliefs. Such a transformation may take place through intense propaganda
and counter suggestion. This stage of hesitation before accepting the
false belief with a fanatical perversity may be called the
snsvadana stage.
Propaganda clouds the right view and leads to hesitation. It may bring a
person down to false belief. However, men who have already known what is
right and have accepted right faith for some time may not remain in this
stage for a long time. There is, further, a possibility of redemption.
(3) Now we come to the third stage, called
samyagmithya drsti. It is
a mixed attitude of right and wrong belief. There is neither a desire to
have true beliefs nor a desire to remain in ignorance and false beliefs,
like mixing curds and treacle. This is also a transitional stage. After
getting insight into the right attitude for the first time, it is
possible that a man may at the same time begin to feel that what is
right may not be right, and he may cling to false ideologies also. This
type of mixed attitude has been explained by the Jainas as due to the
rise of the semi-pure cluster of the
karmic veil deluding the
vision. This stage lasts only for an
antarmuhurta, about
forty-eight minutes. After that, it may either go up to the higher stage
or may fall back to the lower stage of
sasvadana or
mithyatva. In this stage,
there is no self-control,
desasamyama. One experiences both the right attitude and the
perversity at the same time owing to a confusion of attitudes. The
persistence of wrong belief makes moral effort difficult. The practice
of vows is not possible in this stage because of the perversity which is
partially operating. Self-control and the practice of vows are possible
only from the fifth stage of spiritual development, because the moral
effort requires right knowledge and right belief. The Socratic dictum,
�virtue is knowledge�, implies a similar assumption that right knowledge
will alone give us the
possibility of virtue. In this mixed stage, there is no bondage of the
particles of ayu
karma, the
karma which determines the
duration of life. There is no death in this stage, because, as
Nemicandra says, death must be from the very stage in which the
aye
karma is bound.l3 Death is
not possible also because this stage expresses the vital struggle
between the perverse attitude and the right attitude. But in death there
is no energy for such struggle, and the man drops either right belief or
wrong belief without offering much resistance. This is the stage of
active struggle which gives rise to the mixed attitude.
(4) Next comes the stage of the right attitude. This is the fourth
stage. Here, the right attitude is not yet accompanied by moral efforts
for the attainment of the good. This is, therefore, called
avirata samya drsti. One
gets a glimpse of the truth, but one lacks the spiritual strength to
strive for the attainment of the truth. In this stage, the soul lacks
self-control in spite of the fact that it gets the right attitude and,
knowledge of the truth. But this belief in the truth is not steady. It
is impure and inconstant. It still causes destruction of
karma. The right view at
this stage may be due to the subsidence of the vision-deluding
karma, or it may be due to
the subsidence and destruction of the relevant
karma. It is also possible
that such a stage of right attitude is due to the annihilation of the
four primary passions. Thus, the right attitude in this stage may be of
three kinds, (i) right belief due to the suppression of the relevant
karma, aupasazrtlka saznyaktva.
It lasts for an
ezntamuhairta and then may fall down to the lower stage and
lose the right attitude or it may go up to the higher stage. (ii) This
higher stage of right attitude is a second form of
scrmyak, trcr. It is due
to the destruction and subsidence of the
karmic veil formed by the
relevant karma. It
lasts for one antarmuhurta,
but, in the language of Jaina theology, it may last for sixty-six
sagara. in the case of beings residing in heaven. This stage
is called ksayopasanuz saznyaktva.
Next in stage is the right attitude which is formed through
the destruction of the karznus
which are responsible for the perversion of right belief and
the excitement of the four passions. This right attitude is clear. There
is nothing to cloud it. It is right vision. But in the case of
ksayopasama scznyaktva it
is vitiated by perversity and is therefore impure and unsteady.
This stage gives us the right attitude, but there is no possibility of
moral effort to attain it because it lacks spiritual strength. Moral
self-control is not possible. It is called the vowels stage,
avirata. In this stage,
�here is absence of control of the senses and lack of solicitude
regarding injury to living beings. However, the person knows the truth
and knows that the breaking of vows is wrong. He is filled with
compassion and calm. He believes in the right principle and is afraid o
the wheel of sarisaru,
but the moral control and the positive efforts required are not
possible. He may not hurt any living being without provocation, but he
has not taken any vows in the matter.
But right intuition, right knowledge and self-control are necessary for
spiritual development, and the soul which lacks self-control may not
rise higher in the state of spiritual development. A soul can rise to
the next higher stage only when it can overcome this obstacle of lack of
spiritual energy and moral effort. This stage of self-development
belongs to persons who are helpless in the practice of virtue. They have
knowledge of the right and good, but they have no power to practice them
as they have no control over their senses. Aristotle raised a similar
objection against the Socratic doctrine of �virtue is knowledge�, since
men act wrongly even knowing what is right. The will in these cases is
not strong. Effective virtue would be possible with a strong will and
the requisite energy of the soul to translate the will into virtuous
action. The soul has to develop self-control gradually for the sake of
fuller self-realization. From the next stage onwards there is a gradual
expression of self-control.
In
the four spiritual stages that are described here, we have to establish
the right attitude which requires moral effort for further progress. We
may compare these four stages to the state of persons described in
Plato�s Parable of the Cave.
�And now�, said Socrates, �let me show a figure how far our
nature is enlightened or unenlightened�.
c Socrates presents a
picture of some human beings living in an underground den from their
childhood, with legs and necks chained so that they cannot move. They
can only see what is in front of them. The den has a mouth towards the
light. Fire is blazing at a distance above them and behind them. Between
the fire and the prisoners, there is a raised way and low wall built
along the way like the screen which marionette players have in front of
them over which they show their puppets. They would see their own
shadows and the shadows of men and animals passing along. And the
prisoners would mistake the shadows for realities. This is the stage
of mithyatva, the
perversity of attitude towards truth. In this stage we are unable to see
the truth because we are bound and chained to perversities through the
operation of the deluding karmas.
But if one of them is liberated and is compelled to stand up and walk
towards the light, the glare will certainly distress him. He will suffer
pain. He would be unable to see the reality and would persist in
maintaining the superior truth of the shadows. If he is then taken to
the light, he will be in a confused state till he gets accustomed to the
sight of the upper world. This may be compared to the stage of
sasvadancr samyagdrsti,
where there is hesitation and very faint and indistinct glimpses of the
truth. But once he gets accustomed to the change, he will be able to see
the things of the world. He will gaze upon the light of the moon and the
stars and the spangled heavens. The vision may still be indistinct for
him. He may not know the meaning of it all. But once he gets the clearer
vision of the truth, he will realize the folly of his fellow-prisoners
and he will pity them. This is the fourth stage of
avirata samyagdnsti.
Stripped of all moral flavour, the parable roughly
represents the four stages of
self-realization resulting in the attainment of right vision. It is
possible that one who gets the vision may fall down to the lower stage
of perversity. But he would still be different from those who have never
come out of the den of darkness and perversity. His nature would be
filled with the mellowness of the vision. But others in the den would
ridicule him and say of him that he went out and came down without his
eyes.s It was better not to think of ascending. In this parable of the
cave, Plato gives a description of people steeped in ignorance and
perversity. If any one is given a lift to enable him to rise from this
perversity, he may rise for some time but he may fall back again. This
parable roughly corresponds to the four stages of guyasthana
mentioned
in the Jaina philosophy.
(5) Next higher among the stages of spiritual development is
the stage of right attitude coupled with partial self-control, and is
called
desavircetcz samyagdrsti.
At
this stage, one knows what is right and one tries to practice the right,
but one is still vitiated by temptations for untruth and vice. In this
stage, we are still controlled by passions, which are an impediment in
the struggle for self-realization. There is partial destruction of the
karmic
matter producing passions. The full practice of virtues
would not be possible, because there is often the possibility of falling
off in the snares of passions. Self-control is only partial.
This stage is also called
virtue avirata,
because there is the possibility of both self-control and
self-indulgence in the control of vices and the practice of virtues. For
instance, at this stage one takes a vow not to injure any animal, but is
still sinless if one unwittingly kills an animal. However, he may fall
off in the practice of such virtues. There is only a partial expression
of the energy of self-control. However, in this stage one knows the
truth and is devoted to the truth, although one may not be able to
practise it fully and consistently.
(6) Next is the stage which expresses moral activity. In
this stage, moral effort takes a more definite shape, although the
efforts are not always successful. The right attitude and the knowledge
of the truth gained in the earlier stages have created a general
background for the practice of the moral life and the attainment of the
good. Moral effort begins to shape itself. In the fifth stage, a person
has a glimpse of the truth which is more or less clear and steady, and
he tries to develop self-control and to practise virtues for the sake
of
attaining the truth. But complete
self-control has not been possible in this stage, although he acquires
some form of moderate self-control. It was only a partial expression of
the moral effort. But this lack of full self-control and practice of
virtues is overcome in the sixth stage. But even in this stage the
effort for moral life and the spiritual struggle are not fully
successful, because their full expression is vitiated by the moral and
the spiritual inertia which comes in the way of a successful practice of
the moral life. This inertia is called prarmada. Pranrnda
is responsible for the failure to
realize full control and the full practice of moral life. Therefore,
this stage is called pramada sarrryata. The prarnada
poisons and vitiates moral activities
through the operation of� the passions which come in the way of perfect
conduct. Minor passions operate in this stage. Prsrmada
causes impurity
and partially prevents the perfect observance of vows. Thus, from the.
fifth stage moral effort has begun to express itself though in an
imperfect way. In the sixth stage also, the effort for the moral life
continues, although it may not still be successful.
(7)
Prarmada,
which we have called moral and spiritual inertia, is overcome in the
seventh stage. The impediments to the practice of virtues are now
gradually being removed. This stage is called
aprarncrtta samyata. Now
more pronounced self-control is possible. Efforts for the
moral life take a more definite shape. One is able to practise the five
vows with greater success and without many obstructions. Efforts towards
morality are being established. It is possible to get, in this stage,
greater self-control and self-confidence. The operation of the karma
which prevents the perfect conduct is very feeble into the
karmas
are being subdued. Similarly, the minor passions called
no-kasaya
are also at the lowest level of expression. The minor
troubles disappear like ripples on water. As a result,
parried
is overcome and one is able to attain the stage where one
can practise virtues and vows with greater confidence and greater
success. Here, vision of truth is blended with effort for the moral
life, to attain truth. The
aprwrmatta scrmyatcr
of this stage is of two kinds; (i)
snasthnna apraanrtta,
which is the normal and ordinary stage of practice of
virtues, and (ii)
satiscrna crprarncrtta,
an
extra-ordinary way of practising perfect vows. In the first stage of the
practice of vows,
prarnada
is
suppressed. One practices five great vows and possesses twenty-eight
virtues. One has right knowledge and a calm disposition. One is absorbed
in concentration. From this stage onwards, we may take two ascending
scales of spiritual development. For instance, it is possible to go
higher in the scale of suppression and the destruction of
lzarrnas.
This stage is called the ordinary stage of practice of
the moral life, because it
is
not possible to rise higher than this
stage. It lasts only for one antarnruhirrta,
falls down to the sixth stage, and
rescinds to the seventh again and again. In the higher stage of the
effort for the moral life and practice of perfect virtues, it is
possible to go higher in the scale of subsidence and destruction of
their relevant karmas.
The process of crdhahpruvrttakarana,
by which the soul on a
lower level can rise higher and acquire purity, begins to operate in
this stage. In this stage of self-development, the journey has taken a
definite direction, although it may not proceed with the directness and
speed required for the proper and speedy development of the self.
However, the efforts for the moral life have taken the right direction
and, if pursued, will continue towards the final realization of the
self.
(8) Greater self-control and a more definite progress on
the path of self-realization is possible in the eighth stage of
development. This is called the stage of
aparrwn larayu.
The
self
attains special purification, and it is capable of reducing the
intensity and duration of the
karnla. It
is able to reduce the intensity of the
karmas
and
transform the
karmic
series. Such a process increases the purity of the soul. The
apinva karma
operates in this stage. The souls bring about the
subsidence of the
karma,
which is responsible for the obscuration of the right conduct, after
having acquired freedom from the bondage of the
karmic
matter of sleep and drowsiness. But the
karma
determining the age, the
ayu
karma,
still operates. And those who proceed on the way of the
destruction of the
karma
which obscures right conduct, go the way of destruction of karma called
ksapaka.sreyi.
Here also the
karma
determining the age still exists.
Gonrmratasa�ra
gives a detailed analysis of the process of
apirrva kururm
operating in this stage. The duration of the stay of the
soul in the two scales of subsidence and destruction is different. The
soul going the way of subsidence remains, at the most, for an
auturmuhurta.
But, while going the way of destruction of
karmas,
it remains for an
antarmuhurta
as a rule. In this stage one is only affected by mild
passions. One experiences extreme delight in overcoming the strain
arising out of the suppression and elimination of the passions that one
may have in this stage in a mild form. Emotional disturbances do not
much affect one. It is possible to develop a stoic attitude of calm and
indifference in this stage of self-development, because one has already
overcame, with fair confidence, even the milder forms of passion that
disturb quiet concentration and contemplation.
(9) Next is the ninth stage of self-development. It is
called
urriytri-lurdura-sampuraya.
The
process of
nnivrtti kararmr
operates in this stage. It is possible to have progress in the direction
of either suppression or destruction of the
Kerrie
matter. But one may be affected by gross passions to some extent.
Therefore it is called
hirdura-surnparaya.
However, the affliction of the soul by the passions and by the emotional
disturbances is still possible, though it is only an occasional
possibility and not a frequent occurrence. Very rarely is one afflicted
by gross passions and emotions. But it is possible to Overcome such
emotional disturbances,
if they occur with greater confidence and ease. In this
stage, we have fairly established oversells as spiritual and moral
individuals, although sometimes we may be slightly afflicted by passions
and grosser impulses.